The effects of sleep deprivation on risky decision making

Sleep deprivation stands as a major threat to both physical and mental well-being, disrupting normal work and life. Given the ubiquity of risky decision making, it is crucial to comprehend how individuals make risky decisions when sleep-deprived. Although research on the effects of sleep deprivation on risky decision making has increased in recent years, it remains limited and lacks a unified conclusion. The current review attempted to elucidate the effects of sleep deprivation on risky decision making in healthy adults and clarify the regulatory mechanisms. The review showed that sleep deprivation had complex effects on risky decision making; that is, whether sleep deprivation led to riskier or more conservative decision-making behavior depended on factors such as sex, gain-loss frame, use of psychotropic drugs, time interval of sleep elimination, duration of sleep deprivation, and others. Additionally, the complexity of these effects might partly arise from the use of different tasks to measure risk-taking behavior. The review also discussed some limitations of existing research and put forth practical recommendations for future studies, aiming to resolve inconsistencies in the effects of sleep deprivation on risky decision making and enhance the ecological validity of conclusions.

The effect of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on the Iowa Gambling Task: a scoping review

Introduction

Among the tasks employed to investigate decisional processes, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) appears to be the most effective since it allows for deepening the progressive learning process based on feedback on previous choices. Recently, the study of decision making through the IGT has been combined with the application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to understand the cognitive mechanisms and the neural structures involved. However, to date no review regarding the effects of tDCS on decisional processes assessed through the IGT is available. This scoping review aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of the potential effects of tDCS in enhancing decisional processes, assessed with the IGT, through the evaluation of the complete range of target cases.

Methods

The existing literature was analyzed through the PRISMA approach.

Results

Results reported that tDCS can enhance performance in the IGT and highlighted a pivotal role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex in risky and ambiguous decisions.

Discussion

Thus, tDCS over the brain regions identified improves the decisional processes in healthy subjects and patients, confirming its potential to enhance decision making in everyday contexts and deepen the neural correlates. Suggestions for further studies are provided to delve into decisional mechanisms and how to better support them.

A multinational analysis of how emotions relate to economic decisions regarding time or risk

Emotions have been theorized to be important drivers of economic choices, such as intertemporal or risky decisions. Our systematic review and meta-analysis of the previous literature (378 results and 50,972 participants) indicates that the empirical basis for these claims is mixed and the cross-cultural generalizability of these claims has yet to be systematically tested. We analysed a dataset with representative samples from 74 countries (n = 77,242), providing a multinational test of theoretical claims that individuals' ongoing emotional states predict their economic preferences regarding time or risk. Overall, more positive self-reported emotions generally predicted a willingness to wait for delayed rewards or to take favourable risks, in line with some existing theories. Contrary to the assumption of a universal relationship between emotions and decision-making, we show that these relationships vary substantially and systematically across countries. Emotions were stronger predictors of economic decisions in more economically developed and individualistic countries.

Decision-making under risk and its correlates in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD) are associated with pervasive cognitive impairments, including deficits in decision-making under risk. However, there is inconclusive evidence regarding specific mechanisms underlying altered decision-making patterns. In this study, participants (33 SSD and 28 non-SSD) completed the Columbia Card Task, an explicit risk-taking task, to better understand risk preference and adjustment in dynamic decision-making. We found that while there is no group difference in overall risk-taking, risk preference, or optimal decision-making, risk adjustment to contextual factors (e.g., loss probability) is blunted in SSD. We also found associations between risk-taking/suboptimal decision-making and disorganized symptoms, excited symptoms, and role functioning, but no associations between decision-making and working memory. These results suggest that during a complex, dynamic risk-taking task, individuals with SSD exhibit less adaption to changing information about risk, which may reflect risk imperception.

Are correlations among behavioral decision making tasks moderated by simulated cognitive impairment?

Behavioral decision making tasks are common in research settings, with only the Iowa Gambling Task available for clinical assessments. However, correlations among these tasks are low, indicating each may assess a distinct component of decision making. In addition, it is unclear whether these tasks are sensitive to invalid performance or even simulated impairment. The present study examined relationships among decision making tasks and whether simulated impairment moderates the relationships among them. Across two studies (Study 1: n = 166, Study 2: n = 130), undergraduate student participants were asked to try their best or to simulate a specific diagnosis (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; Study 1), decision making impairment (Study 2), or general cognitive impairment (Study 2). They then completed a battery of tests including embedded and standalone performance validity tests (PVTs) and three behavioral decision making tasks. Across studies, participants simulating impairment were not distinguishable from controls on any of the behavioral tasks. Few significant correlations emerged among tasks across studies and the pattern of relationships between tasks did not differ on the basis of simulator or PVT failure status. Collectively, our findings suggest that these tasks may not be vulnerable to simulated cognitive impairment, and that the tasks measure largely non-overlapping aspects of decision making.

Sex modulated the relationship between trait approach motivation and decision-making

It has been observed that one's Behavioral Approach System (BAS) can have an effect on decision-making under uncertainty, although the results have been mixed. To discern the underlying neural substrates, we hypothesize that sex may explain the conflicting results. To test this idea, a large sample of participants was studied using resting state fMRI, utilizing fractional Amplitude of Low Frequency Fluctuations (fALFF) and Resting-State Functional Connectivity (rsFC) techniques. The results of the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) revealed an interaction between sex and BAS, particularly in the last 60 trials (decision-making under risk). Males with high BAS showed poorer performance than those with low BAS. fALFF analysis showed a significant interaction between BAS group and sex in the left superior occipital gyrus, as well as the functional connectivity between this region and the left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Additionally, this functional connectivity was further positively correlated with male performance in the IGT, particularly in the decision-making under risk stage. Furthermore, it was found that the functional connectivity between left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and left superior occipital gyrus could mediate the relationship between BAS and decision-making in males, particularly in the decision-making under risk stage. These results suggest possible sex-based differences in decision-making, providing an explanation for the inconsistent results found in prior research. Since the research was carried out exclusively with Chinese university students, it is essential to conduct further studies to investigate whether the findings can be generalized.

Dual-process modeling of sequential decision making in the balloon analogue risk task

People are often faced with repeated risky decisions that involve uncertainty. In sequential risk-taking tasks, like the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), the underlying decision process is not yet fully understood. Dual-process theory proposes that human cognition involves two main families of processes, often referred to as System 1 (fast and automatic) and System 2 (slow and conscious). We cross models of the BART with different architectures of the two systems to yield a pool of computational dual-process models that are evaluated on multiple performance measures (e.g., parameter identifiability, model recovery, and predictive accuracy). Results show that the best-performing model configuration assumes the two systems are competitively connected, an evaluation process based on the Scaled Target Learning model of the BART, and an assessment rate that incorporates sensitivity to the trial number, pumping opportunity, and bias to engage in System 1. Findings also shed light on how modeling choices and response times in a dual-process framework can benefit our understanding of sequential risk-taking behavior.

Cognitive chicken or the emotional egg? How reconceptualizing decision-making by integrating cognition and emotion can improve task psychometrics and clinical utility

Decision-making is an executive function, tapping into cognitive, emotional, and personality-based components. This complexity, and the varying operational definitions of the construct, is reflected in the rich array of behavioral decision-making tasks available for use in research and clinical settings. In many cases, these tasks are "subfield-specific," with tasks developed by cognitive psychologists focusing on cognitive aspects of decision-making and tasks developed by clinical psychologists focusing on interactions between emotional and cognitive aspects. Critically, performance across different tasks does not consistently correlate, obfuscating the ability to compare scores between measures and detect changes over time. Differing theories as to what cognitive and/or emotional aspects affect decision-making likely contribute to this lack of consistency across measures. The low criterion-related validity among decision-making tasks and lack of consistent measurement of the construct presents challenges for emotion and decision-making scholars. In this perspective, we provide several recommendations for the field: (a) assess decision-making as a specific cognitive ability versus a taxonomy of cognitive abilities; (b) a renewed focus on convergent validity across tasks; (c) further assessment of test-retest reliability versus practice effects on tasks; and (d) reimagine future decision-making research to consider the research versus clinical implications. We discuss one example of decision-making research applied to clinical settings, acquired brain injury recovery, to demonstrate how some of these concerns and recommendations can affect the ability to track changes in decision-making across time.

Decision-making under ambiguity and risk and executive functions in Parkinson's disease patients: A scoping review of the studies investigating the Iowa Gambling Task and the Game of Dice

Evidence shows that patients affected by Parkinson's disease (PD) display the tendency toward making risky choices. This is due, at least in part, to the pathophysiological characteristics of the disease that affects neural areas underlying decision making (DM), in which a pivotal role is played by nonmotor corticostriatal circuits and dopamine. Executive functions (EFs), which can be impaired by PD as well, may sustain optimal choices in DM processes. However, few studies have investigated whether EFs can support PD patients to make good decisions. Adopting the scoping review approach, the present article is designed to deepen the cognitive mechanisms of DM under conditions of ambiguity and risk (that are conditions common to everyday life decisions) in PD patients without impulse control disorders. We focused our attention on the Iowa Gambling Task and the Game of Dice Task, because they are the most commonly used and reliable tasks to assess DM under ambiguity and under risk, respectively, and analyzed the performances in such tasks and their relationships with EFs tests in PD patients. The analysis supported the relationships between EFs and DM performance, especially when a higher cognitive load is required to make optimal decisions, as it happens under conditions of risk. Possible knowledge gaps and further research directions are suggested to better understand DM mechanisms in PD sustaining patients' cognitive functioning and preventing negative consequences in everyday life derived from suboptimal decisions.

In search of the functional base of risk-taking: inexperience and safety

This study is aimed at challenging the notion that risk-taking is based merely on some mechanistic foundation like control deficiencies or process imbalances. We hypothesize that risk-taking has an adaptive function and is an optimal strategy for an agent who (1) has scarce knowledge about the current environment or (2) is in a position in which a potential loss is not threatening. We argue that the two above are related to age which, in turn, may explain association between age and risk-taking commonly reported in the developmental literature. We investigate the possible influence of the age-related variables on the risk propensity in two ways: by inducing rich or scarce knowledge and safe or unsafe position in the experimental environment with task parameters and, simultaneously by examining actual differences between adolescents and adults. The results of two experiments that used a novel compound risk task provide support for the first hypothesis concerning knowledge about the environment. On the other hand, the results falsify the second "safe position" hypothesis. Also, the second experiment reveals that one's status relative to resources can influence risk-taking, but it does so in a way that is different from our initial assumption.

Impulsive Buying Tendecy: The Role of Cognitive Factors, Personality Traits and Affect

Impulsive buying is considered to be an emotional and unplanned decision-making behaviour. Because this type of purchasing rate has fairly increased in recent years, examining the determinants of impulsive buying is important to understand which intervention programs should be designed. In the current study, it was aimed to develop a model in which impulsive buying tendency is predicted by variables such as personality traits, affect and cognitive factors (problem solving skills and cognitive flexibility). Overall, 300 young adults (198 female and 102 male), took part in the study. The mean age of the participants for the current study was as 21.29 years (SD=2.95). Impulsive buying tendency, personality traits, affect, problem solving skills and cognitive flexibility variables were measured via Consumer Buying Impulsivity Scale (CBI), Behavioural Inhibition/Activation System Scales (BIS/BAS), Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), Problem Solving Inventory (PSI) and Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFI), respectively. The results indicated that personality traits in the behavioral activation system (reward system) could be an important determinant of impulsive buying tendency when examined together with other variables. In sum, high reward responsiveness may result in impulsive buying. Furthermore, affective factors (both negative and positive affect) rather than cognitive factors may be a triggering factor for impulsive buying.

Deliberative and Affective Risky Decisions in Teenagers: Different Associations with Maladaptive Psychological Functioning and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation?

Using network analysis, we investigated the relationships between maladaptive psychological functioning, difficulties in emotion regulation, and risk-taking in deliberative and affective behavioral decisions. Participants (103 adolescents aged between 13 and 19 years, 62% boys) took the Cold (deliberative) and Hot (affective) versions of the Columbia Card Task and completed the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). In contrast to the view that risk propensity increases from preadolescence to middle adolescence and decreases at later ages, our study revealed no age-specific trend. YSR syndrome scales were significantly correlated with risk propensity, but only in the Cold version. The YSR Thought Problems scale was the most central node in the network, linking internalizing and externalizing problems with risk propensity in the Cold CCT. Lack of emotional Clarity was the only DERS consistently linked with risk-taking both in correlation and network analyses. Maladaptive psychological functioning and difficulties in emotion regulation were linked with risk propensity in affective risky decisions through deliberative processes. The statistical significance of direct and indirect effects was further examined using nonparametric mediation analyses. Our study highlights the role of cognitive factors that in each variable set might account for risk-taking in teenagers.

Executive Functions in Decision Making under Ambiguity and Risk in Healthy Adults: A Scoping Review Adopting the Hot and Cold Executive Functions Perspective

Decision making (DM) has a pivotal role in supporting individual autonomy and well-being. It is considered a complex ability exploiting many cognitive functions, among which executive functions (EFs) are crucial. Few studies analyzed the role played by EFs in DM in healthy adults under ambiguity and risk, which are common conditions for most decisions in daily life. This scoping review aims to analyze the relationships between two individual tasks widely used to assess DM under these conditions (Iowa Gambling Task and Game of Dice Task) and EFs. According to the organizing principle that conceptualizes hot and cold EFs, DM under such conditions mainly implies hot EFs, but the relationship with cold EFs is still unclear. Using such an approach, a comprehensive framework is provided, highlighting main findings and identifying possible gaps in the literature. The results suggest different roles played by cold EFs in DM under ambiguity and risk, according to the characteristics of the tasks. The findings can offer guidance to further studies and to design interventions to support DM in healthy adults.

Contextual Factors Affecting Risky Decision Making: The Influence of Music on Task Performance and Perceived Distraction

Previous research has investigated factors that contribute to the development of different risk-taking behaviors, such as can occur on lab-based behavioral risky decision making tasks. On several of the most common tasks, participants must develop an adequate understanding of the relative risks and benefits associated with each decision in order to learn to decide advantageously. However, contextual factors can affect the decision making process and one's ability to weigh the risks and benefits of a decision. The present study investigates the extent to which music may be an additional contextual factor that can disrupt decision making and other executive functions. Across four studies we examine whether having music playing passively in the background or having participants actively listen to music affects performance on measures of risky decision making, working memory, processing speed, and problem solving. Participants reported greater distraction for rock music than classical music in the passive listening studies but did not report any differences in distraction across conditions in the active listening studies. Despite this self-reported increased level of distraction, few significant differences were found in task performance across groups and across studies. The Angling Risk Task (ART) was sensitive to differences in risk by condition, with music leading to greater risk-taking in a passive listening study, but less risk-taking in an active listening study, compared to no music. The extent to which music serves as a contextual factor disrupting performance on measures of risky decision making and other executive functions may depend in part on whether individuals are actively versus passively listening to the music.

The assessment of physical risk taking: Preliminary construct validation of a new behavioral measure

Risk taking is a complex heterogeneous construct that has proven difficult to assess, especially when using behavioral tasks. We present an exploratory investigation of new measure–the Assessment of Physical Risk Taking (APRT). APRT produces a variety of different outcome scores and is designed as a comprehensive assessment of the probability of success and failure, and magnitude of reward and punishment of different types of simulated physically risky behaviors. Effects observed on the simulated behaviors are hypothesized to reflect similar effects on real world physical risks. Participants (N = 224) completed APRT in a laboratory setting, half of whom had a 1.5 s delay interposed between button presses. Exploratory analyses utilizing generalized estimating equations examined the main effects and two-way interactions among five within-subject factors, as well as two-way interactions between the within-subject factors and Delay across four APRT outcome scores. Results indicated that Injury Magnitude and Injury Probability exerted stronger effects than any of the other independent variables. Participants also completed several self-report measures of risk taking and associated constructs (e.g., sensation seeking), which were correlated with APRT scores to assess the preliminary convergent and divergent validity of the new measure. After correcting for multiple comparisons, APRT scores correlated with self-reported risk taking in thrilling, physically dangerous activities specifically, but only for those who did not have a delay between APRT responses. This promising exploratory investigation highlights the need for future studies comparing APRT to other behavioral risk taking tasks, examining the robustness of the observed APRT effects, and investigating how APRT may predict real-world physical risk taking.

Risk From Within: Intraminority Gay Community Stress and Sexual Risk-Taking Among Sexual Minority Men

BACKGROUND

Sexual minority men remain highly impacted by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with social stress being a clear predictor of their risk for infection. The past several decades of stress research regarding sexual minority men's HIV-risk behaviors has almost exclusively focused on the influence of stress emanating from outside the gay community (e.g., stigma-related stress, or minority stress, such as heterosexist discrimination). However, recent evidence suggests that sexual minority men also face stress from within their own communities.

PURPOSE

We sought to examine whether stress from within the gay community, or intraminority gay community stress, might influence sexual minority men's risk behaviors, including HIV-risk behaviors, over-and-above more commonly examined stressors affecting this risk.

METHODS

We tested whether intraminority gay community stress was associated with sexual minority men's HIV-risk behaviors in a large national survey of sexual minority men (Study 1), and experimentally tested intraminority gay community stress's impact on behavioral risk-taking and attitudes toward condom use (Study 2).

RESULTS

Self-reported exposure to intraminority gay community stress was positively associated with HIV-risk behaviors when accounting for the effects of several commonly examined minority stressors and general life stress (Study 1). Participants who were rejected from an online group of other sexual minority men evidenced greater risk-taking in a subsequent task and reported fewer benefits of condom use than participants who were accepted by the online group, when accounting for state affect (Study 2).

CONCLUSIONS

Sexual minority men's experiences of stress and rejection stemming from their own community may be an important and overlooked predictor of HIV infection and transmission.

Sensitivity to gains during risky decision-making differentiates chronic cocaine users from stimulant-naïve controls

BACKGROUND

Chronic cocaine use has been consistently associated with decision-making impairments that contribute to the development and maintenance of drug-taking. However, the underlying cognitive processes of risk-seeking behaviours observed in chronic cocaine users (CU) have so far remained unclear. Here we therefore tested whether CU differ from stimulant-naïve controls in their sensitivity to gain, loss, and probability of loss information when making decisions under risk.

METHOD

A sample of 96 participants (56 CU and 40 controls) performed the no-feedback version of the Columbia Card Task, designed to assess risk-taking in relation to gain, loss, and probability of loss information. Additionally, cognitive performance and impulsivity were determined. Current and recent substance use was objectively assessed by toxicological urine and hair analysis.

RESULTS

Compared to controls, CU showed increased risk-seeking in unfavourable decision scenarios in which the loss probability was high and the returns were low, and a tendency for increased risk aversion in more favourable decision scenarios. In comparison to controls, CU were less sensitive to gain, but similarly sensitive to loss and probability of loss information. Further analysis revealed that individual differences in sensitivity to loss and probability of loss information were related to cognitive performance and impulsivity.

CONCLUSION

Reduced sensitivity to gains in people with CU may contribute to their propensity for making risky decisions. While these alterations in gain sensitivity might directly relate to cocaine use per se, the individual psychopathological profile of CU might moderate sensitivity to loss information.

Effects of Total and Partial Sleep Deprivation on Reflection Impulsivity and Risk-Taking in Deliberative Decision-Making

STUDY OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of total and partial sleep deprivation on reflection impulsivity and risk-taking in tasks requiring deliberative decision-making processes.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

Seventy-four healthy young adults were selected to participate in two independent experiments, each consisting of a crossover design. In Experiment 1, 32 participants were tested after one night of regular sleep (RS), and after one night of total sleep deprivation (TSD). In Experiment 2, 42 participants were tested following five nights of RS and after five nights of partial sleep deprivation (PSD), implying five hours of sleep per night. In both the experiments, two deliberative decision-making tasks were administered, involving different decision-making constructs. The Mosaic Task (MT) assessed reflection impulsivity, the tendency to gather information before making a decision. The Columbia Card Task cold version (CCTc) evaluated risk-taking propensity in a dynamic environment.

RESULTS

Unlike TSD, PSD led to an increment of reflection impulsivity and risk-taking. Nevertheless, analyses taking into account the individuals' baseline (RS) performance showed consistent results between the two experimental sleep manipulations. Participants who gathered more information to make decisions in the MT when well-rested, then relied on less evidence under sleep loss, and more cautious participants in the CCTc tended to make riskier decisions.

CONCLUSION

Results pointed to differential consequences of sleep deprivation depending on the habitual way to respond during decision-making involving deliberative reasoning processes. Results were interpreted according to a putative interaction between sleep loss effect and individual difference factors.

Event-related potentials in response to feedback following risk-taking in the hot version of the Columbia Card Task

Given the importance of risk-taking in individuals' personal and professional life, several behavioral tasks for measuring the construct have been developed. Recently, a new task was introduced, the Columbia Card Task (CCT). This task measures participants' risk levels and establishes how sensitive participants are to gains, losses, and probabilities when taking risk. So far, the CCT has been examined in behavioral studies and in combination with several (neuro)biological techniques. However, no electroencephalography (EEG) research has been done on the task. The present study fills this gap and helps to validate this relatively new experimental task. To this end, n = 126 students were asked to complete self-reports (reward responsiveness, impulsiveness, and sensation-seeking) and to perform the CCT (and other risk tasks) in an EEG setup. The results show that feedback appraisal after risky decision-making in the CCT was accompanied by a feedback-related negativity (FRN) and a P300, which were stronger in response to negative than positive feedback. Correlations between the FRN and P300 difference wave on the one hand and risk-related self-reports and behavior on the other were nonsignificant and small, but were mostly in the expected direction. This pattern did not change after excluding participants with psychiatric/neurological disorders and outliers. Excluding participants with reversed (positive > negative) difference waves strengthened FRN correlations. The impact such individuals can have on the data should be taken into account in future studies. Regarding the CCT in particular, future studies should also address its oddball structure and its masking of true values (censoring).

Approximate Number Processing Skills Contribute to Decision Making Under Objective Risk: Interactions With Executive Functions and Objective Numeracy

Research on the cognitive abilities involved in decision making has shown that, under objective risk conditions (i.e., when explicit information about possible outcomes and risks is available), superior decisions are especially predicted by executive functions and exact number processing skills, also referred to as objective numeracy. So far, decision-making research has mainly focused on exact number processing skills, such as performing calculations or transformations of symbolic numbers. There is evidence that such exact numeric skills are based on approximate number processing (ANP) skills, which enable quick and accurate processing of non-symbolic numbers (e.g., Chen and Li, 2014). Very few studies, however, have investigated ANP skills in the context of risky decision making and have analyzed direct associations among the aforementioned sub functions. Possible interactions between the closely related skills have not been considered. The current study (N = 128) examines interactions of ANP skills with executive functions and objective numeracy, in predicting risky choice behavior. ANP skills are represented by the accuracy in a dot-comparison task. Decision making is measured by two versions of the Game of Dice Task (GDT), which place different emphases on the reflection of potential risks. The results show two-way as well as three-way interactions between the measures of ANP skills, executive functions, and objective numeracy in predicting risky decisions in both GDT versions. The riskiest decisions were most frequently made in case of low scores in all of the three competencies, while good performance in any one of them resulted in significant reductions of disadvantageous decisions. The findings indicate that high ANP skills can positively affect choice behavior in individuals who have weaknesses in reflectively attributed skills, namely executive functions and objective numeracy. Potential compensatory effects and mechanisms of ANP in decision making are discussed.

Factors underlying risk taking in heroin-dependent individuals: Feedback processing and environmental contingencies

Evidence suggests that factors influencing risk-taking include whether decisions are made based on emotions (affective systems) or cognitions (deliberative systems), the processing of feedback (e.g., deciding to attend a rehabilitation facility for opioid addiction treatment after an intervention held by a family member), and attention to environmental contingencies (e.g., considering the probability of an outcome such as the likelihood of contracting tetanus from a shared needle; or the gains and losses associated with a decision, such as the benefits and costs of taking drugs). Although drug-dependent individuals tend to take more risks than non-drug users, the factors underlying risk-taking are unknown. The current study tested, for the first time, the influences of performance feedback (i.e., whether feedback about performance is integrated into decision-making in heroin-dependent individuals) and attention to environmental contingencies (i.e., the influence of the probability of a loss, the gain amount, and the loss amount associated with a scenario) on risk-taking in heroin-dependent individuals. Heroin-dependent patients undergoing maintenance therapy for opioid addiction (n = 25) and healthy controls (n = 27) completed the feedback and no-feedback conditions of the Columbia Card Task (CCT). Analyses of covariance, controlling for education and task design (the order in which the CCT conditions were completed) as covariates revealed a significant interaction between (a) probability, gain and loss amount, and group, and (b) group and probability. Our findings suggest that heroin-dependent patients pay less attention to environmental contingencies during risk-taking than controls. Addressing these factors may facilitate greater adherence to treatment programs and lower rates of relapse.

Risk approximation in decision making: approximative numeric abilities predict advantageous decisions under objective risk

Many decision situations in everyday life involve mathematical considerations. In decisions under objective risk, i.e., when explicit numeric information is available, executive functions and abilities to handle exact numbers and ratios are predictors of objectively advantageous choices. Although still debated, exact numeric abilities, e.g., normative calculation skills, are assumed to be related to approximate number processing skills. The current study investigates the effects of approximative numeric abilities on decision making under objective risk. Participants (N = 153) performed a paradigm measuring number-comparison, quantity-estimation, risk-estimation, and decision-making skills on the basis of rapid dot comparisons. Additionally, a risky decision-making task with exact numeric information was administered, as well as tasks measuring executive functions and exact numeric abilities, e.g., mental calculation and ratio processing skills, were conducted. Approximative numeric abilities significantly predicted advantageous decision making, even beyond the effects of executive functions and exact numeric skills. Especially being able to make accurate risk estimations seemed to contribute to superior choices. We recommend approximation skills and approximate number processing to be subject of future investigations on decision making under risk.

Similarities between adult female crack cocaine users and adolescents in risky decision-making scenarios

BACKGROUND

Although previous studies have shown that both adolescence and drug addiction can influence risk-taking and decision-making processes, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Specifically, there is a lack of evidence as to whether these conditions could affect deliberative and affective processes involved in risk taking, such as feedback learning and valuation of profits and risk.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives were to compare the role of feedback and the use of information in risk-taking behavior between female crack cocaine users and adolescents. Additionally, we aimed to investigate whether sensation seeking, impulsivity, depressive and anxiety symptoms, executive functioning, and working memory performance could explain differences in risk-taking behavior.

METHOD

This is a quasi-experimental study comparing 27 low-income adult female crack cocaine users (CU) to 18 female adolescents (AD) within two conditions (no-feedback or delayed-feedback) of the Columbia Card Task (CCT). In order to investigate CCT reference values for adult females, we also included 20 female non-drug-users with regular education and income as a reference group (RG).

RESULTS

A similar pattern of risk-taking behavior was found between CU and AD within the CCT no-feedback condition. When delayed feedback was provided, AD exhibited a similar pattern of risk-taking behavior in the no-feedback condition, while CU showed a reduction of risk-taking behavior. Both groups exhibited higher risk taking than the RG within the CCT no-feedback condition, but only the AD group showed higher risk-taking behavior within the CCT feedback condition. Depressive symptom severity and working memory deficits were associated with higher risk-taking behaviors in CU. Executive functioning deficits were associated with higher risk-taking behavior in AD.

CONCLUSIONS

Adult female crack cocaine users and female adolescents took similar risks during risky decision-making scenarios where feedback about their own performance was absent. However, when participants were provided with such feedback, it modulated risk-taking behaviors in crack cocaine users but not in adolescents.

Assessing Affective and Deliberative Decision-Making: Adaptation of the Columbia Card Task to Brazilian Portuguese

The ability to predict reward and punishment is essential for decision-making and the ability to learn about an ever-changing environment. Therefore, efforts have been made in understanding the mechanisms underlying decision-making, especially regarding how affective and deliberative processes interact with risk behavior. Objective: To adapt to Brazilian Portuguese the Columbia Card Task (CCT) and investigate affective and deliberative processes involved in decision-making. Methods: This study had two main phases: (1) a transcultural adaptation and (2) a pilot study. Results: The feedback manipulation among the three conditions of CCT had an effect on the risk-taking level (p < .005, ES = .201). In addition, the feedback manipulation among the three conditions of CCT had an effect on the information use at both the individual and group levels. Further, a linear regression suggested that the use of information, indicated by the advantageous level of the scenarios, predict the number of cards chosen R2 = .029, p < .001, accounting for 17% of the variance. Conclusions: The Brazilian CCT performs well and is a versatile method for the assessment of affective and deliberative decision-making under risk according to different feedback manipulation scenarios. This study goes further, comparing electrodermal activity during hot and warm conditions and addressing an advantageous level index analysis to asses deliberative processing.

Information Use Differences in Hot and Cold Risk Processing: When Does Information About Probability Count in the Columbia Card Task?

Objective: This paper aims to provide insight into information processing differences between hot and cold risk taking decision tasks within a single domain. Decision theory defines risky situations using at least three parameters: outcome one (often a gain) with its probability and outcome two (often a loss) with a complementary probability. Although a rational agent should consider all of the parameters, s/he could potentially narrow their focus to only some of them, particularly when explicit Type 2 processes do not have the resources to override implicit Type 1 processes. Here we investigate differences in risky situation parameters' influence on hot and cold decisions. Although previous studies show lower information use in hot than in cold processes, they do not provide decision weight changes and therefore do not explain whether this difference results from worse concentration on each parameter of a risky situation (probability, gain amount, and loss amount) or from ignoring some parameters.

Methods: Two studies were conducted, with participants performing the Columbia Card Task (CCT) in either its Cold or Hot version. In the first study, participants also performed the Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT) to monitor their ability to override Type 1 processing cues (implicit processes) with Type 2 explicit processes. Because hypothesis testing required comparison of the relative importance of risky situation decision weights (gain, loss, probability), we developed a novel way of measuring information use in the CCT by employing a conjoint analysis methodology.

Results: Across the two studies, results indicated that in the CCT Cold condition decision makers concentrate on each information type (gain, loss, probability), but in the CCT Hot condition they concentrate mostly on a single parameter: probability of gain/loss. We also show that an individual's CRT score correlates with information use propensity in cold but not hot tasks. Thus, the affective dimension of hot tasks inhibits correct information processing, probably because it is difficult to engage Type 2 processes in such circumstances. Individuals' Type 2 processing abilities (measured by the CRT) assist greater use of information in cold tasks but do not help in hot tasks.

Monitoring supports performance in a dual-task paradigm involving a risky decision-making task and a working memory task

Performing two cognitively demanding tasks at the same time is known to decrease performance. The current study investigates the underlying executive functions of a dual-tasking situation involving the simultaneous performance of decision making under explicit risk and a working memory task. It is suggested that making a decision and performing a working memory task at the same time should particularly require monitoring—an executive control process supervising behavior and the state of processing on two tasks. To test the role of a supervisory/monitoring function in such a dual-tasking situation we investigated 122 participants with the Game of Dice Task plus 2-back task (GDT plus 2-back task). This dual task requires participants to make decisions under risk and to perform a 2-back working memory task at the same time. Furthermore, a task measuring a set of several executive functions gathered in the term concept formation (Modified Card Sorting Test, MCST) and the newly developed Balanced Switching Task (BST), measuring monitoring in particular, were used. The results demonstrate that concept formation and monitoring are involved in the simultaneous performance of decision making under risk and a working memory task. In particular, the mediation analysis revealed that BST performance partially mediates the influence of MCST performance on the GDT plus 2-back task. These findings suggest that monitoring is one important subfunction for superior performance in a dual-tasking situation including decision making under risk and a working memory task.