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Huang BZ, Creekmur B, Yoo MS, Broder B, Subject C, Sharp AL. Healthcare Utilization Among Patients Diagnosed with COVID-19 in a Large Integrated Health System. J Gen Intern Med 2022; 37:830-837. [PMID: 34993879 PMCID: PMC8735886 DOI: 10.1007/s11606-021-07139-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Background The demands for healthcare resources following a COVID-19 diagnosis are substantial, but not currently quantified. Objective To describe trends in healthcare utilization within 180 days for patients diagnosed with COVID-19 and identify patient factors associated with increased healthcare use. Design Observational cohort study. Patients A total of 64,011 patients with a test-confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis from March to September 2020 in a large integrated healthcare system in Southern California. Main Measures Overall healthcare utilization during the 180 days following COVID-19 diagnosis, as well as encounter types and reasons for visits during the first 30 days. Poisson regression was used to identify patient factors associated with higher utilization. Analyses were performed separately for patients who were and were not hospitalized for COVID-19. Key Results Healthcare utilization was about twice as high for hospitalized patients compared to non-hospitalized patients in all time periods. The average number of visits was highest in the first 30 days (hospitalized: 12.3 visits/30 person-days; non-hospitalized: 6.6) and gradually decreased over time. In the first 30 days, the majority of healthcare visits were telehealth encounters (hospitalized: 9.0 visits; non-hospitalized: 5.6 visits), and the most prevalent reasons for visits were COVID-related diagnoses, COVID-related symptoms, and respiratory-related conditions. For hospitalized patients, older age (≥65: RR 1.27, 95% CI 1.15–1.41), female gender (RR 1.07, 95% CI 1.05–1.09), and higher BMI (≥40: RR 1.07, 95% CI 1.03–1.10) were associated with higher total utilization. For non-hospitalized patients, older age, female gender, higher BMI, non-white race/ethnicity, former smoking, and greater number of pre-existing comorbidities were all associated with increased utilization. Conclusions Patients with COVID-19 seek healthcare frequently within 30 days of diagnosis, placing high demands on health systems. Identifying ways to support patients diagnosed with COVID-19 while adequately providing the usual recommended care to our communities will be important as we recover from the pandemic. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11606-021-07139-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Z. Huang
- grid.280062.e0000 0000 9957 7758Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California, Pasadena, CA USA
- grid.42505.360000 0001 2156 6853Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of USC, CA Los Angeles, USA
| | - Beth Creekmur
- grid.280062.e0000 0000 9957 7758Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California, Pasadena, CA USA
| | - Michael S. Yoo
- grid.414908.00000 0004 0445 0834The Permanente Medical Group, Kaiser Permanente Santa Rosa Medical Center, Santa Rosa, CA USA
| | - Benjamin Broder
- Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Baldwin Park Medical Center, Baldwin Park, CA USA
| | - Christopher Subject
- grid.414855.90000 0004 0445 0551Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - Adam L. Sharp
- grid.280062.e0000 0000 9957 7758Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California, Pasadena, CA USA
- grid.414855.90000 0004 0445 0551Southern California Permanente Medical Group, Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA USA
- grid.19006.3e0000 0000 9632 6718Departments of Clinical Science & Health Systems Science, Kaiser Permanente Bernard J. Tyson School of Medicine, Pasadena, CA USA
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Clough E, Inigo J, Chandra D, Chaves L, Reynolds JL, Aalinkeel R, Schwartz SA, Khmaladze A, Mahajan SD. Mitochondrial Dynamics in SARS-COV2 Spike Protein Treated Human Microglia: Implications for Neuro-COVID. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2021; 16:770-784. [PMID: 34599743 PMCID: PMC8487226 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-021-10015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Emerging clinical data from the current COVID-19 pandemic suggests that ~ 40% of COVID-19 patients develop neurological symptoms attributed to viral encephalitis while in COVID long haulers chronic neuro-inflammation and neuronal damage result in a syndrome described as Neuro-COVID. We hypothesize that SAR-COV2 induces mitochondrial dysfunction and activation of the mitochondrial-dependent intrinsic apoptotic pathway, resulting in microglial and neuronal apoptosis. The goal of our study was to determine the effect of SARS-COV2 on mitochondrial biogenesis and to monitor cell apoptosis in human microglia non-invasively in real time using Raman spectroscopy, providing a unique spatio-temporal information on mitochondrial function in live cells. We treated human microglia with SARS-COV2 spike protein and examined the levels of cytokines and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, determined the effect of SARS-COV2 on mitochondrial biogenesis and examined the changes in molecular composition of phospholipids. Our results show that SARS- COV2 spike protein increases the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and ROS production, increases apoptosis and increases the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) in microglial cells. Increases in OCR are indicative of increased ROS production and oxidative stress suggesting that SARS-COV2 induced cell death. Raman spectroscopy yielded significant differences in phospholipids such as Phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylcholine (PC), which account for ~ 80% of mitochondrial membrane lipids between SARS-COV2 treated and untreated microglial cells. These data provide important mechanistic insights into SARS-COV2 induced mitochondrial dysfunction which underlies neuropathology associated with Neuro-COVID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Clough
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University At Buffalo, Clinical Translational Research Center, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Joseph Inigo
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, 14263, USA
| | - Dhyan Chandra
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, 14263, USA
| | - Lee Chaves
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University At Buffalo, Clinical Translational Research Center, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Jessica L Reynolds
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University At Buffalo, Clinical Translational Research Center, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Ravikumar Aalinkeel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University At Buffalo, Clinical Translational Research Center, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Stanley A Schwartz
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University At Buffalo, Clinical Translational Research Center, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA
| | - Alexander Khmaladze
- Department of Physics, University At Albany SUNY, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY, 12222, USA
| | - Supriya D Mahajan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University At Buffalo, Clinical Translational Research Center, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA.
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Scherlinger M, Felten R, Gallais F, Nazon C, Chatelus E, Pijnenburg L, Mengin A, Gras A, Vidailhet P, Arnould-Michel R, Bibi-Triki S, Carapito R, Trouillet-Assant S, Perret M, Belot A, Bahram S, Arnaud L, Gottenberg JE, Fafi-Kremer S, Sibilia J. Refining "Long-COVID" by a Prospective Multimodal Evaluation of Patients with Long-Term Symptoms Attributed to SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Infect Dis Ther 2021; 10:1747-1763. [PMID: 34245450 PMCID: PMC8270770 DOI: 10.1007/s40121-021-00484-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction COVID-19 long-haulers, also decribed as having “long-COVID” or post-acute COVID-19 syndrome, represent 10% of COVID-19 patients and remain understudied. Methods In this prospective study, we recruited 30 consecutive patients seeking medical help for persistent symptoms (> 30 days) attributed to COVID-19. All reported a viral illness compatible with COVID-19. The patients underwent a multi-modal evaluation, including clinical, psychologic, virologic and specific immunologic assays and were followed longitudinally. A group of 17 convalescent COVID-19 individuals without persistent symptoms were included as a comparison group. Results The median age was 40 [interquartile range: 35–54] years and 18 (60%) were female. At a median time of 152 [102–164] days after symptom onset, fever, cough and dyspnea were less frequently reported compared with the initial presentation, but paresthesia and burning pain emerged in 18 (60%) and 13 (43%) patients, respectively. The clinical examination was unremarkable in all patients, although the median fatigue and pain visual analog scales were 7 [5–8] and 5 [2–6], respectively. Extensive biologic studies were unremarkable, and multiplex cytokines and ultra-sensitive interferon-α2 measurements were similar between long-haulers and convalescent COVID-19 individuals without persistent symptoms. Using SARS-CoV-2 serology and IFN-γ ELISPOT, we found evidence of a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection in 50% (15/30) of patients, with evidence of a lack of immune response, or a waning immune response, in two patients. Finally, psychiatric evaluation showed that 11 (36.7%), 13 (43.3%) and 9 (30%) patients had a positive screening for anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, respectively. Conclusions Half of patients seeking medical help for post-acute COVID-19 syndrome lack SARS-CoV-2 immunity. The presence of SARS-CoV-2 immunity, or not, had no consequence on the clinical or biologic characteristics of post-acute COVID-19 syndrome patients, all of whom reported severe fatigue, altered quality of life and psychologic distress. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40121-021-00484-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Scherlinger
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France. .,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France.
| | - Renaud Felten
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Floriane Gallais
- Virology Diagnostic Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Charlotte Nazon
- Virology Diagnostic Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France
| | - Emmanuel Chatelus
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Luc Pijnenburg
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Amaury Mengin
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France
| | - Adrien Gras
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France
| | - Pierre Vidailhet
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France
| | - Rachel Arnould-Michel
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France
| | - Sabrina Bibi-Triki
- Laboratoire D'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Institut National de La Santé Et de La Recherche Médicale (INSERM) UMR_S 1109, Institut Thématique Interdisciplinaire (ITI) de Médecine de Précision de Strasbourg, Transplantex NG, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Raphaël Carapito
- Laboratoire D'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Institut National de La Santé Et de La Recherche Médicale (INSERM) UMR_S 1109, Institut Thématique Interdisciplinaire (ITI) de Médecine de Précision de Strasbourg, Transplantex NG, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Sophie Trouillet-Assant
- National Reference Centre for Rare Rheumatic and AutoImmune Diseases in childrEn RAISE, Hospices Civils de Lyon, CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, 69007, Lyon, France
| | - Magali Perret
- National Reference Centre for Rare Rheumatic and AutoImmune Diseases in childrEn RAISE, Hospices Civils de Lyon, CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, 69007, Lyon, France
| | - Alexandre Belot
- National Reference Centre for Rare Rheumatic and AutoImmune Diseases in childrEn RAISE, Hospices Civils de Lyon, CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, 69007, Lyon, France
| | - Seiamak Bahram
- Laboratoire D'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Institut National de La Santé Et de La Recherche Médicale (INSERM) UMR_S 1109, Institut Thématique Interdisciplinaire (ITI) de Médecine de Précision de Strasbourg, Transplantex NG, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Laurent Arnaud
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France.,Laboratoire D'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Institut National de La Santé Et de La Recherche Médicale (INSERM) UMR_S 1109, Institut Thématique Interdisciplinaire (ITI) de Médecine de Précision de Strasbourg, Transplantex NG, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jacques-Eric Gottenberg
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France.,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France.,IBMC, UPR3572, CNRS, Strasbourg, France
| | - Samira Fafi-Kremer
- Virology Diagnostic Laboratory, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 3 Rue Koeberlé, 67000, Strasbourg, France.,Laboratoire D'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Institut National de La Santé Et de La Recherche Médicale (INSERM) UMR_S 1109, Institut Thématique Interdisciplinaire (ITI) de Médecine de Précision de Strasbourg, Transplantex NG, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean Sibilia
- Rheumatology Department, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67098, Strasbourg, France. .,Centre National de Référence Des Maladies Auto-Immunes Et Systémiques Rares, Est/Sud-Ouest (RESO), Service de Rhumatologie du CHU de Strasbourg, 1 Avenue Molière, 67200, Strasbourg Cedex, France. .,Laboratoire D'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, Institut National de La Santé Et de La Recherche Médicale (INSERM) UMR_S 1109, Institut Thématique Interdisciplinaire (ITI) de Médecine de Précision de Strasbourg, Transplantex NG, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.
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Tremblay ME, Madore C, Bordeleau M, Tian L, Verkhratsky A. Neuropathobiology of COVID-19: The Role for Glia. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:592214. [PMID: 33304243 PMCID: PMC7693550 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.592214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2, which causes the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, has a brain neurotropism through binding to the receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 expressed by neurones and glial cells, including astrocytes and microglia. Systemic infection which accompanies severe cases of COVID-19 also triggers substantial increase in circulating levels of chemokines and interleukins that compromise the blood-brain barrier, enter the brain parenchyma and affect its defensive systems, astrocytes and microglia. Brain areas devoid of a blood-brain barrier such as the circumventricular organs are particularly vulnerable to circulating inflammatory mediators. The performance of astrocytes and microglia, as well as of immune cells required for brain health, is considered critical in defining the neurological damage and neurological outcome of COVID-19. In this review, we discuss the neurotropism of SARS-CoV-2, the implication of neuroinflammation, adaptive and innate immunity, autoimmunity, as well as astrocytic and microglial immune and homeostatic functions in the neurological and psychiatric aspects of COVID-19. The consequences of SARS-CoV-2 infection during ageing, in the presence of systemic comorbidities, and for the exposed pregnant mother and foetus are also covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Eve Tremblay
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- Neurology and Neurosurgery Department, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Charlotte Madore
- Univ. Bordeaux, INRAE, Bordeaux INP, NutriNeuro, UMR 1286, Bordeaux, France
| | - Maude Bordeleau
- Axe Neurosciences, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, Québec City, QC, Canada
- Neurology and Neurosurgery Department, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine and Translational Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
- Psychiatry Research Centre, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing Huilongguan Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- Achucarro Center for Neuroscience, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
- Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Leioa, Spain
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