Prediction of ADHD to anxiety disorders: an 11-year national insurance data analysis in Taiwan

Indirect effect of ADHD on parenting stress through increased child anxiety and decreased emotional regulatory coping

Parents of children with ADHD experience significantly more parenting stress in comparison to parents of typically developing children due to the emotional and behavioral difficulties related to ADHD. Additionally, approximately 30% of children with ADHD experience co-occurring anxiety. Parents of children with co-occurring anxiety and ADHD report increased stress due to role restriction and isolation compared to parents of children with ADHD alone. Poor emotional regulatory coping in children with ADHD has been linked to elevated negative affect and irritability, which also contributes to increased stress among parents. The present study examined the direct and indirect associations of child anxiety symptoms and emotional regulatory coping on elevated ADHD symptoms and parenting stress. Participants were 203 children aged 7-12-years-old and their parents. Parents completed a self-report measure of parenting stress and measures of their child's ADHD symptoms, anxiety, and emotional regulatory coping. Additionally, children completed self-report measures of emotional regulatory coping. Model testing indicated that the overall model demonstrated excellent fit to the data. Parameter testing supported an indirect effect of child ADHD symptoms on parenting stress through child anxiety symptoms and an indirect effect of child ADHD symptoms on parenting stress through child emotional regulatory coping. These results suggest that child anxiety and emotion dysregulation in children with ADHD have a negative impact on parental stress. The current study adds to the understanding of the important roles emotional regulatory coping and anxiety play in children with ADHD to contribute to increased parenting stress.

Understanding the causal relationships of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with mental disorders and suicide attempt: a network Mendelian randomisation study

BACKGROUND

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a lifespan neurodevelopmental condition resulting from complex interactions between genetic and environmental risk factors. There is evidence that ADHD is associated with other mental disorders, but it remains unclear whether and in what way a causal relationship exists.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the direct and indirect causal paths between ADHD and seven common mental disorders.

METHODS

Two-sample network Mendelian randomisation analysis was performed to identify psychiatric disorders causally related to ADHD. Total and direct effects were estimated in an univariable and multivariable setting, respectively. Robustness of results was ensured in three ways: a range of pleiotropy-robust methods, an iterative approach identifying and excluding outliers, and use of up to two genome-wide association studies per outcome to replicate results and calculate subsequently pooled meta-estimates.

RESULTS

Genetic liability to ADHD was independently associated with the risk of anorexia nervosa (OR 1.28 (95% CI 1.11 to 1.47); p=0.001). A bidirectional association was found with major depressive disorder (OR 1.09 (95% CI 1.03 to 1.15); p=0.003 in the forward direction and OR 1.76 (95% CI 1.50 to 2.06); p=4×10-12 in the reverse direction). Moreover, after adjustment for major depression disorder, a direct association with both suicide attempt (OR 1.30 (95% CI 1.16 to 1.547); p=2×10-5) and post-traumatic stress disorder (OR 1.18 (95% CI 1.05 to 1.33); p=0.007) was observed. There was no evidence of a relationship with anxiety, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that ADHD is an independent risk factor for a number of common psychiatric disorders.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

The risk of comorbid psychiatric disorders in individuals with ADHD needs to be considered both in diagnosis and treatment.

Person-Centered Trajectories of Psychopathology From Early Childhood to Late Adolescence

Importance

The understanding of the development of psychopathology has been hampered by a reliance on cross-sectional data and symptom- or disorder-centered methods. Person-centered methods can accommodate both the problems of comorbidity and the movement between different psychopathological states at different phases of development.

Objective

To examine the profiles and map the trajectories of psychopathology from early childhood to late adolescence.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This cohort study used 2 longitudinal nationally representative community-based cohorts from the Growing Up in Ireland study covering developmental periods from early childhood to late adolescence. Data in this investigation came from children and their families who participated in all waves of cohorts recruited in 2008 (children ages 3, 5, and 9 years) and 1998 (adolescents ages 9, 13, and 17 or 18 years). Both samples were weighted to account for representation and attrition. Latent transition analyses were used to map the trajectories of psychopathology. Data were analyzed between October 2020 and September 2021.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Psychopathology was measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at all ages in both samples.

Results

A total of 13 546 individuals were included in the analyses. In the child cohort, mean (SD) age was 3.0 [0.01] years; 3852 (51.3%) were male participants. In the adolescent cohort, mean age was 9.0 (0.1) years; 3082 (51.0%) were male participants. Four profiles were identified in both cohorts that could be broadly labeled as no psychopathology (incidence range, 60%-70%), high psychopathology (incidence range, 3%-5%), externalizing problems (incidence range, 15%-25%), and internalizing problems (incidence range, 7%-12%). Transition between the profiles was common in both cohorts, with 3649 of 7507 participants (48.6%) in the child cohort and 2661 of 6039 participants (44.1%) in the adolescent cohort moving into 1 of the 3 psychopathology profiles at some point in development. Transition to the high psychopathology profile was most often preceded by externalizing problems. Approximately 3% to 4% of the sample had persistent psychopathology (child cohort, 203 participants [2.7%]; adolescent cohort, 216 participants [3.6%]). All psychopathology profiles were more common in boys in early life but, by late adolescence, girls were more likely to have internalizing problems. In a cross-cohort comparison at age 9, there were differences in the sex distributions of the profiles between the samples.

Conclusions and Relevance

Using person-centered methods, this study demonstrated that from early life young peoples' experience of psychopathology is dynamic-they can move between different mental health problems; for most children, these problems are transient, but a small proportion (fewer than 5%) have persistent difficulties. In the context of finite resources, optimizing care requires the early identification of those with persistent phenomena.

ADHD and Anxiety Disorder Comorbidity in Children and Adults: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW: In this review, we focus on overlapping features of ADHD and anxiety disorders, and will discuss how an anxiety disorder comorbidity leads to diagnostic and treatment challenges in patients with ADHD, in consideration of the accumulated available knowledge. RECENT FINDINGS: The presence of overlapping symptoms, changes in the diagnostic criteria, and the use of divergent diagnostic tools and informant effects can complicate the diagnosis of this comorbidity. Due to the ongoing debate about the etiology, psychopathology, and diagnostic features of the association between ADHD and anxiety disorders, choosing appropriate treatment options emerges as a challenge. A novel methodology, standardized interview tools, and new statistical analysis methods are needed to define the phenotype of this co-occurrence more clearly. It is important to uncover the developmental nature of this comorbidity with follow-up studies that may explain the etiology and underlying neurobiological basis, and ultimately lead to more effective treatment approaches.

Relationship between Bullying Victimization and Quality of Life in Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in Taiwan: Mediation of the Effects of Emotional Problems and ADHD and Oppositional Defiant Symptoms

This cross-sectional study investigated the mediating effects of emotional problems including depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms on the association between bullying victimization and quality of life (QoL) among adolescents with ADHD in Taiwan. A total of 171 adolescents diagnosed as having ADHD participated in this study. Adolescents completed the School Bullying Experience Questionnaire, the Taiwanese Quality of Life Questionnaire for Adolescents, the Taiwanese version of the Children’s Depression Inventory and the Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children. Caregivers completed the Chinese version of the Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Version IV Scale. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the relationships among the variables. The results of SEM revealed that bullying victimization indirectly correlated with QoL through the mediation of emotional problems in adolescents with ADHD, whereas ADHD and ODD symptoms did not mediate the association between bullying victimization and QoL. Bullying victimization should be actively prevented and intervened on to ensure better QoL in adolescents with ADHD. Moreover, emotional problems should be alleviated among adolescents with ADHD with bullying victimization experience to maintain their QoL.

Self esteem and clinical features in a clinical sample of children with ADHD and social anxiety disorder

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to investigate self-esteem and clinical features in clinically referred children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and comorbid Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) and compare these to children and adolescents without SAD.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty child and adolescent drug-naïve outpatients (6-15 years of age) with a primary diagnosis of ADHD were included. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL), was used to evaluate ADHD and comorbidities. Parents filled in clinical and sociodemographic data form, Conners Parent Rating Scale (CPRS) and patients filled in Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES) and Çapa Social Phobia Scale for children and adolescents (ÇESFÖ).

RESULTS

Forty-six of the 120 (38.3%) children had comorbid SAD. Forty-six patients with SAD (ADHD + SAD group) and 74 patients without SAD (ADHD without SAD group) were compared in terms of the sociodemographic and clinical features, rate of psychiatric comorbidities, and rating scale scores. The rate of inattentive subtype of ADHD (p = 0.009), and social anxiety symptom scores (p < 0.001) were higher and self-esteem was lower (p < 0.001) in the ADHD + SAD group. Additionally, there was a statistically significant correlation between ÇESFÖ scores and CPRS anxiety subscale scores (r = 0.300, p = 0.001), and also Rosenberg self-esteem scale scores (r = 0.470, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Children and adolescents with ADHD who had comorbid SAD may differ from ADHD patients without SAD in terms of ADHD subtype, clinical features and self-esteem.

Outcomes of ADHD Symptoms in Late Adolescence: Are Developmental Subtypes Important?

Objective: Substantial individual variation exists in the age of onset and course of ADHD symptoms over development. We evaluated whether, within this variation, meaningful developmental subtypes can be defined. Method: Using growth mixture modeling in a community-based sample (N = 1,571), we analyzed ADHD symptom trajectories based on measures taken at ages 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, and 15 years. We evaluated whether those showing developmental trajectories characterized by later onsets versus early onsets differed in terms of mental health and behavioral outcomes in late adolescence (age 17 years). Result: The late onset category was best conceptualized as a milder subtype than early onset. The former was, however, more similar in outcomes to the latter than to the unaffected category, suggesting that later onsets are still associated with impairment. Conclusion: Considering diagnoses for those affected by ADHD symptoms but who do not meet current age of onset criteria may be important for ensuring that they receive appropriate support.

Clinical Effects of ADHD Subtypes in Patients With Social Anxiety Disorder

Objective: Our aim in this study is to evaluate the impacts of inattentive and combined types of childhood ADHD (ADHD-I, ADHD-C) in patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD). Methods: A total of 142 adult outpatients with a primary diagnosis of SAD were included. All patients were assessed by using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I), Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL), ADHD module and a clinical and sociodemographic data form and scales were filled out. Results: Childhood ADHD comorbidity rates was found to be 88 (62%) in patients with SAD, and 63 of these patients had the diagnosis of ADHD-I. ADHD-I group had higher scores of social anxiety and avoidance and had earlier onset of SAD than the ADHD-C group. Conclusion: The inattentive subtype of ADHD may have a more specific relationship with SAD than ADHD-C.

Risk of Dementia in Adults With ADHD: A Nationwide, Population-Based Cohort Study in Taiwan

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the association between adults with ADHD and the risk of developing dementia.

METHOD

Utilizing National Health Insurance Research Database of Taiwan, ADHD patients were identified and compared with age- and gender-matched controls (1:3).

RESULTS

Of the study participants, 37 (5.48%) developed dementia compared with 81 (4.0%) in the control group. Cox proportional hazards regression analysis revealed that the study participants were more likely to develop dementia. The crude hazard ratio (HR) is 3.418 (95% confidence interval [CI] = [2.289, 5.106], p < .001), and adjusted HR is 4.008 (95% CI = [2.526, 6.361], p < .001) in risk of developing dementia after adjusted for age, gender, comorbidities, geographical area of residence, urbanization level of residence, and monthly income.

CONCLUSION

Adults with ADHD have a 3.4-fold risk of developing dementia, and other large or national data sets should be explored to support the current findings.

Comorbidity of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Generalized Anxiety Disorder in children and adolescents

The aim of the study is to explore the impact of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) comorbidity in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Six hundred children with ADHD (mean age = 9.12 years), recruited from 2013 to 2017, participated in the study. A total of 96 (16%) children with ADHD displayed a comorbidity with GAD. ADHD + GAD were compared to 504 ADHD children without GAD in terms of cognitive and psychiatric profile, ADHD subtype and family psychiatric history. The ADHD + GAD, predominantly represented from ADHD combined (72.6%), displayed higher psychiatry comorbidity, in particular with depressive disorders, and were associated with higher rates of maternal depression, of ADHD in fathers, and bipolar disorders in second degree relatives. Moreover, younger preschool-primary school age children with ADHD + GAD showed significant higher frequency of depressive disorders versus younger preschool-primary children with ADHD without GAD. ADHD + GAD comorbidity represents a more complex clinical condition compared to ADHD without GAD, characterized by the higher frequency of multiple comorbidities and by a psychiatric family with higher rates of mood and disruptive disorders.

Development of social anxiety disorder secondary to attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (the developmental hypothesis)

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) may develop secondary to childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity (ADHD) in a subgroup of the patients with SAD. Patients pass through a number of identifiable stages of developmental pathways to SAD as they grow up. Patients with ADHD have maladaptive behaviours in social settings due to the symptoms of ADHD. These behaviours are criticized by their parents and social circle; they receive insults, humiliation and bullying. After each aversive incident, the individual feels shame and guilt. A vicious cycle emerges. The patients then develop social fears and a cognitive inhibition that occurs in social situations. The inhibition increases gradually as the fear persists and the individual becomes withdrawn. Patients start to monitor themselves and to focus on others' feedback. Finally, performative social situations become extremely stimulating for them and may trigger anxiety/panic attacks. If this hypothesis is proven, treatment of 'patients with SAD secondary to ADHD' should focus on the primary disease.

Extended-release methylphenidate monotherapy in patients with comorbid social anxiety disorder and adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: retrospective case series

BACKGROUND

The relationship between social anxiety disorder (SAD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a subject which has recently become a topic of interest for research.

METHODS

In this study, 20 patients with comorbid SAD and adult ADHD who were treated with extended-release methylphenidate monotherapy were evaluated retrospectively.

RESULTS

Clinical response for both ADHD and SAD symptoms was observed in 17 of 20 patients. Overall, one patient did not respond to treatment and two patients dropped out of treatment at the beginning due to adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

Extended-release methylphenidate improved both SAD and ADHD symptoms and was generally well tolerated. Further studies are required to investigate the relationship between SAD and ADHD.

The Presence of Childhood Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder May Be Associated With Interpersonal Sensitivity in Patients With Social Anxiety Disorder

The goal of this study was to evaluate a possible association between childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and interpersonal sensitivity in patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD). The study involved 125 adult outpatients with a primary diagnosis of SAD. To evaluate childhood ADHD, the ADHD module of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL) was used. Clinical and sociodemographic data were collected and clinical rating scales were completed. Mean total scores on the Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure were significantly higher in the group with SAD and ADHD than in the group with SAD without ADHD. Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure total scores were positively correlated with the severity of SAD symptoms and negatively correlated with mean age of onset of SAD. The presence of childhood ADHD may be associated with greater interpersonal sensitivity in patients with SAD.

Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship between ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems: A Chinese twin study

Several twin studies have investigated the overlap between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and externalizing problems; however, limited information is known regarding the genetic and environmental contribution to the overlap between ADHD and internalizing problems. This study examined the genetic and environmental influences on the variation in and covariation between ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems by using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). We investigated 1,316 child and adolescent twins, including 780 monozygotic twins and 536 dizygotic twins, aged 6 years to 18 years from the Chinese Child and Adolescent Twin Registry. ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems were quantified through parent rating by using the Attention Problems Scale and other three scales, which include Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints of CBCL. Genetic and environmental susceptibilities common to ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems were examined through bivariate twin modeling. Results showed that genetic factors substantially influenced the ADHD symptoms with a heritability of 72%. Modest genetic influences and substantial shared environmental influences (20-77%) were observed in the three internalizing problem scales. Common genetic and shared environmental influences were essential for the overlap between ADHD and the three internalizing problems respectively. Approximately one-fifth of the genetic variance of ADHD symptoms was shared with anxiety/depression. In conclusion, substantial genetic and shared environmental influences on ADHD symptoms and internalizing problems were observed in Chinese children and adolescents. Our finding supports a common etiology between ADHD and internalizing problems. This finding can also help explain the co-existence of these behavior problems. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Predominantly Inattentive Type of ADHD is Associated With Social Anxiety Disorder

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of childhood ADHD comorbidity in patients with social anxiety disorder (SAD), and the influence of this comorbidity on various demographic and clinical variables in SAD.

METHOD

A total of 130 patients with SAD were assessed with K-SADS-PL's (Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version) behavioral disorders module to determine the childhood diagnosis of ADHD. Patients with or without a comorbid childhood ADHD were compared in terms of clinical characteristics and rating scores.

RESULTS

The mean age at onset of SAD was lower, and lifetime major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder (BD) comorbidity were higher in the SAD-ADHD group than in the SAD-without ADHD group.

CONCLUSION

We have found high ADHD comorbidity in patients with SAD. Presence of comorbid ADHD was associated with increased severity, functional impairment, and BD comorbidity.