Framing a Global Pandemic: Journalism Cultures and Media Coverage of COVID-19 in China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States

Using a computational approach, this study analyzes and compares news coverage of the novel coronavirus in six major newspapers (i.e. China Daily, The Korea Times, The New York Times, Chicago Tribune, The Guardian, and The Times) from four countries (i.e. the U.S. the UK, South Korea, and China) that were severely affected in the beginning of the recent pandemic. Results show similarities and differences in how these elite newspapers used major frames of COVID-19 including medical, social, and containment during the first months of the pandemic. China Daily, however, adopted an additional frame of fending off. Statistical test results also indicated differences in how these outlets incorporated fear appeal messages into their news content. Specifically, the Western news organizations were significantly more likely than the Asian outlets to use fear in their coverage. Findings are discussed in the context of differences in the journalism culture and media coverage of the pandemic in the four studied countries.

Assigning Responsibility for Depression and Diabetes: Frame Building Factors in Health Coverage

Although frame building is a crucial part of framing in health communication, it is much less understood than media frames or their effects on audiences (i.e. frame setting). To address this research gap, we analyzed the individual, organizational, and external factors of influence contributing to the media's portrayal of responsibility for two major health issues: depression and diabetes. To identify relevant factors, we conducted 23 semi-structured interviews with German journalists who regularly report on these health issues. Our findings indicate that the way in which media coverage portrays responsibilities in depression and diabetes is affected by a variety of factors. These include individual (journalist role perception, journalistic routines, academic background and personal experiences with depression, diabetes-related knowledge, and personal values and beliefs), organizational (editorial lines, space limits, time limitations and payment, and newsroom structures), and external (health news sources, audience interest, newsworthiness, and social norms) factors. Notably, there are differences between depression and diabetes coverage - especially regarding individual factors - confirming that frame building, similar to framing in general, should be examined with regard to specific issues. Nevertheless, some factors that seem important across different topics could be identified.

Mapping obesity and diabetes' representation on Twitter: the case of Italy

One of the main functions of public health is to monitor population health to identify health problems and priorities. Social media is increasingly being used to promote it. This study aims to investigate the field of diabetes and obesity and related tweets in the context of health and disease. The database extracted using academic APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) allowed the study to be run with content analysis and sentiment analysis techniques. These two analysis techniques are some of the tools of choice for the intended objectives. Content analysis facilitated the representation of a concept and a connection between two or more concepts, such as diabetes and obesity, on a purely text-based social platform such as Twitter. Sentiment analysis therefore allowed us to explore the emotional aspect related to the collected data related to the representation of such concepts. The results show a variety of representations connected to the two concepts and their correlations. From them it was possible to produce some clusters of elementary contexts and structure narrative and representational dimensions of the investigated concepts. The use of sentiment analysis and content analysis and cluster output to represent complex contexts such as diabetes and obesity for a social media community could increase knowledge of how virtual platforms impact fragile categories, facilitating concrete spillovers into public health strategies.

Evaluation of Individuals’ Perception of Health News in the Period of COVID-19 Pandemic

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the perceptions of individuals related to health news published in COVID-19 pandemic period in Turkey. It was also aimed to determine the factors that may affect this perception. The research population consisted of individuals in the 18–74 age range living in Turkey. Google survey method was used to collect data. A total of 1,073 people were reached from Turkey’s seven regions. ‘Health News Perception Scale’ developed by Cinar et al. (2018) was used to evaluate the perception of individuals about health news. Gender, generations, education level, marital status, the region where the city is located, number of children, time spent and trust in health news on internet, having chronic diseases, COVID-19 positive diagnosis of relatives, working status and frequency of following the health news during pandemic were variables that make a statistically significant difference in individuals’ perception of health news. As a result, it is thought that health news can make a significant difference on the health behaviour of individuals. It is important to pay attention to the quality of the news in this period, where the number of news reports on health and the interest of individuals in health news has increased.

The Social Amplification of Risk Framework: A Normative Perspective on Trust?

Public trust is being lamented as the central victim of our new, digital information environment, a notion that is depicted in labeling our society as "posttruth" or "posttrust." Within this article, we aim to call this deficit view of public trust into question and kindle a more positive outlook in future research. For this, we utilize the Social Amplification of Risk Framework to discuss trust as an inherent aspect of social interactions and to question the frameworks' normative approach to public trust and risk perception. Utilizing a literature review of prior studies that investigated trust within the structure of SARF and a case study on the impacts of Fukushima on public trust in nuclear energy, we would like to argue that the current normative "trust deficit model" should be overcome and future risk research should increasingly focus on the opportunities of the digital informational environment for risk communication.

Unleading during a pandemic: Scrutinising leadership and its impact in a state of exception

Characterising COVID-19 pandemic as a ‘state of exception’, we might expect great hero models of leadership to come to the fore. Instead, drawing on a thematic analysis of 246 news articles, this paper illustrates something different: communities, companies, individuals picked-up the leadership mantle but were reluctant to frame their practices under a leadership rhetoric. The paper explores spontaneous initiatives and leaderly actions that were made visible during the pandemic and proposes practice-based implications for redrawing leadership conceptualisations. These practices, coined as unleading, are characterised under four dimensions: unconditionality and social intention; purposeful action in the absence of an achievement motivation; sensing and attending to local conditions; and confident connecting and collaborating. The analysis and discussion of the four dimensions affirm that while leading and unleading are always present when organising, they are more or less visible and practiced depending on organisational, social and individual circumstances. The paper concludes by surfacing questions and reflections for the future of unleading and implications for leadership theorising and practice.

Disabled woman attitude scale: Reliability and validity study

OBJECTIVE:

The objective of the study was to develop a scale to determine the attitude of nursing and midwifery university students towards disabled women.

METHODS:

In the development of the scale; expert opinion, content validity, item reliability, and construct validity stages were included in the study. It was realized with a total of 167 students. To evaluate the suitability of the data for factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Sample Fit Test and Bartlett’s test have been applied. To evaluate validity and reliability; test-retest, factor analysis, and internal consistency analysis have been applied. Permission from the institutions and ethics committee permission was obtained.

RESULTS:

The number of the items in the scale decreased from 64 to 31 in accordance with expert opinion. Internal consistency, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.817 and the test-retest correlation coefficient was 0.992. The exploratory factor analysis revealed an four-factor structure, accounting for 59.81% of the variance. Kaiser-Meyer Olkin coefficient of 0.793, p<0.005 in Bartlett’s test showed a correlation between the items and there was a positive correlation between the items. As a result of the analyses, the number of the items decreased to 17.

CONCLUSION:

It was concluded that the Disabled Woman Attitude Scale can be used as a valid and reliable measurement tool in healthcare workers.

Changes in the Framing of Antimicrobial Resistance in Print Media in Australia and the United Kingdom (2011-2020): A Comparative Qualitative Content and Trends Analysis

Educating the public about antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered a key part of an optimal public health response. In both media depictions and policy discourses around health risks, how a problem is framed underpins public awareness and understanding, while also guiding opinions on what actions can and should be taken. Using a mixed methods approach we analyse newspaper content in Australia and the United Kingdom (UK) from 2011 to 2020 to track how causes, consequences and solutions to AMR are represented in countries with different policy approaches. Analyses demonstrate greater variability in the frames used in UK newspapers reflecting large hospital and community outbreaks and a sustained period of policy reform mid-decade. Newspapers in Australia focus more on AMR causes and consequences, highlighting the importance of scientific discovery, whereas UK coverage has greater discussion of the social and economic drivers of AMR and their associated solutions. Variations in the trends of different frames around AMR in UK newspapers indicate greater levels of public deliberation and debate around immediate and actionable solutions; whereas AMR has not had the same health and political impacts in Australia resulting in a media framing that potentially encourages greater public complacency about the issue.

Impacts of the National Your Brain Matters Dementia Risk Reduction Campaign in Australia Over 2 Years

BACKGROUND

The number of people living with dementia is rising globally due to population aging. Mass media campaigns which aim to reduce the risk of people developing dementia have been conducted across many countries, but few have reported evaluation findings.

OBJECTIVE

The present study investigated the impact of the Your Brain Matters dementia risk reduction campaign in Australia.

METHODS

The campaign was evaluated by observational cross-sectional surveys of 1000 Australian adults aged 18-75 years before and 24 months after delivery. The national campaign utilized multiple media channels to promote messages about the importance of brain health and reducing the risk of dementia. Dementia risk reduction knowledge, confidence, intentions and actions were measured at baseline and follow-up, and analyzed 2019-2020.

RESULTS

Earned television and radio were the most common exposure channels. The proportion of people who understood that it is beneficial to take action to reduce dementia risk before middle age increased (54.1% to 59.4%, OR 1.20 95% CI: 1.01-1.44). There was also an increase (28.5% to 32.8%, OR 1.30, 95% CI: 1.07-1.59) in the proportion who reported taking action to improve brain health. There was no improvement in knowledge about vascular risk factors, or confidence to reduce personal dementia risk.

CONCLUSION

The findings showed some receptivity and positive responses to messages about the benefits of taking action to reduce the risk of dementia. The campaign demonstrated the potential for generating news coverage about this issue, which should highlight the preventive benefits of vascular health behaviors.

Framing climate change and health: New Zealand's online news media

Climate change is a major threat to public health worldwide. Conversely, well-designed action to mitigate climate change offers numerous opportunities to improve health and equity. Despite this, comprehensive climate action has not been forthcoming within New Zealand. The media plays an important role in shaping public opinion and support for policy change. Previous literature has suggested that certain types of framing may be more effective than others at encouraging support for climate action and policy. This includes positive, personally relevant framing, as well as key journalistic tools which appear counter-intuitive, such as an increase in human interest stories and 'sensationalist' framing. We undertook a qualitative thematic analysis of climate change and health media coverage in two online New Zealand news outlets to understand how the issue was framed, and how it may be framed more effectively to encourage climate action. We compared the framing used by journalists in mainstream media outlet the New Zealand Herald Online (NZHO) with that of contributors to independent news repository site Scoop. Content in both outlets emphasized the threat unchecked climate change poses to health, which overshadowed the positive health opportunities of climate action. The NZHO was more prone to negative framing, and more likely to favour stories which could be sensationalized and were international in scope. We considered the possible effectiveness of the framing we found for attracting greater media attention and encouraging support for climate action and policy.

Journalistic Denial of Death during the Very First Traumatic Period of the Italian COVID-19 Pandemic

Exactly one year ago, between February and March 2020, the COVID-19 infection went from an epidemic confined to China to a worldwide pandemic that was particularly lethal in Italy. This study examined the media accounts during that period by analysing the representation of death-related constructs in Corriere della Sera, the most widely read newspaper in Italy. A textual and thematic analysis of articles published between period A (epidemic: 23 January-22 February 2020) and period B (pandemic: 23 February-31 March 2020) was conducted using Nvivo-11. A total of 141 articles comprising 48,524 words were collected. The most utilised words and meanings linked to COVID-19 were computed. In the rank distribution, 'China' and 'virus' were the terms most frequently used in both periods. The terms 'death' and 'dead' were completely absent in period A and appeared in the 535th position in period B. The term 'dead' was used primarily to indicate the number of deceased. From a Terror Management Theory perspective, it is possible that the minimal reference to death-related issues was a reflection of death denial and a manifestation of efforts to deny death to manage terror. These findings highlight the ambiguities and ambivalence surrounding any issue pertaining to death; on the one side, undue alarmism may provoke exaggerated reactions, such as moral panic, while on the other denial-based messages that minimise references to mortality may reduce safe behaviour during a pandemic.

Why medical journalism wins public health journalism: systems thinking recommendations for health-promoting media

Purpose

Health-related issues are widely covered in news agencies by medical and health journalists. The quantity, format and quality of their coverage influence the general public as well as policymakers and professions. Current studies and observations suggest that news agencies are more dominated by medical topics (disease, symptoms, epidemiology, treatment and medicines) than general public health issues (risk prevention, health protection, education and promotion). This study explores the causes of the current situation in Iran and generates solutions for supporting health-promoting media that may also prove beneficial for other countries.

Design/methodology/approach

A qualitative study was conducted to explore the coverage of health-related topics in selected news agencies. Stakeholders, including health journalists, health professionals and public relations staff at the Iranian Ministry of Health and Medical Education were interviewed. Data were collected until data saturation was reached. The transcripts of all the 17 interviews conducted were analyzed using conventional content analysis.

Findings

Four groups of causes were identified, including individual factors, organizational factors, socioeconomic factors and the different nature of medicine and public health. The participants proposed several solutions that were classified into three categories, including the empowerment of stakeholders through capacity development, organizational change and mutual communication and culture change.

Originality/value

Creating health-promoting media is a complex but urgent task, and providing a comprehensive and deep understanding of the dynamic interdependencies of the multiple factors at play in it and developing and implementing the most effective interventions for it requires a systematic approach.

Monitoring the 'diabetes epidemic': A framing analysis of United Kingdom print news 1993-2013

INTRODUCTION

The view that we are in the midst of a global diabetes epidemic has gained considerable ground in recent years and is often linked to the prior 'obesity epidemic'. This research explored how the diabetes epidemic was represented in United Kingdom (UK) news over the same time period that the obesity epidemic was widely reported. The research was motivated by a sociological interest in how postmodern 'epidemics' synergise with each other amidst broader political, economic, moral and sociocultural discourses.

METHOD

We analysed three time-bound samples of UK news articles about diabetes: 1993 (n = 19), 2001 (n = 119) and 2013 (n = 324). Until now, UK media has had the least attention regarding portrayal of diabetes. We adopted an empathically neutral approach and used a dual method approach of inductive thematic analysis and deductive framing analysis. The two methods were triangulated to produce the findings.

RESULTS

Framing of diabetes moved from medical in 1993 to behavioural in 2001, then societal in 2013. By 2001 obesity was conceptualised as causal to diabetes, rather than a risk factor. Between 2001 and 2013 portrayals of the modifiable risk factors for diabetes (i.e. diet, exercise and weight) became increasingly technical. Other risk factors like age, family history and genetics faded during 2001 and 2013, while race, ethnicity and culture were positioned as states of 'high risk' for diabetes. The notion of an 'epidemic' of diabetes 'powered up' these concerns from an individual problem to a societal threat in the context of obesity as a well-known health risk.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Portraying diabetes and the diabetes epidemic as anticipated consequences of obesity enlivens the heightened awareness to future risks in everyday life brought about during the obesity epidemic. The freeform adoption of the 'epidemic' term in contemporary health discourse appears to foster individual and societal dependence on biomedicine, giving it political, economic and divisive utility.

[Diseases neglected by the media and strategies for visibility from the viewpoint of key actors]

Although health is a recurrent topic in newspapers, some diseases are visibly excluded from this coverage, originating diseases neglected by the media. The goal of this study was to identify - based on the opinion of journalists, press officers, health managers, and government health advisors - these diseases along with strategies for dealing with media neglect. The qualitative study was based on 19 semi-structured interviews with key actors. Data was submited to thematic content analysis using Maxqda software. The neglected diseases include infectious and parasitic diseases, rare diseases, periodontal diseases, cancer, and work-related illnesses.

Media reporting of health interventions in New Zealand: a retrospective analysis

AIM

To evaluate New Zealand media articles on their coverage of key issues regarding health interventions and whether it is consistent with available evidence.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was carried out of all articles published in five New Zealand media sources over a 6-week period between 15 October and 26 November 2014. Articles were included if their primary focus was on health interventions involving medications, devices or in-hospital procedures. Articles were assessed for coverage of key issues using previously validated 10-point criteria. A literature review was performed to compare content with scientific evidence.

RESULTS

We identified 30 articles for review. Only 4 of 30 articles covered indications, benefits and risks, and of these, two were consistent with available evidence (7%, 95% CI 1%-22%). For articles that discussed at least one of indications, benefits or risks, and there was corresponding evidence available, there was a high level of consistency with the evidence (89%, 95% CI 77%-95%). The overall mean value of coverage from the 10-point criteria was 51% (95% CI 45%-58%). Single questions regarding the potential harm, costs associated with the intervention and the availability of alternative options were particularly poorly covered. They were rated as 'satisfactory' in 13%, 23% and 33% of the 30 articles respectively.

CONCLUSION

New Zealand news articles covering medical treatments and interventions are largely consistent with available evidence but are incomplete. Vital information is being consistently missed, especially around the potential harms and costs of medical interventions.

The social group influences of US health journalists and their impact on the newsmaking process

The news media play a vital role in disseminating health information, yet little is known about the social characteristics of health journalists or the impact they have on the newsmaking process. This study examines how the social group influences of US health journalists impact two important aspects of news production--'media agenda-setting' and 'framing'. Using data from a national survey of health and medical science journalists, the authors conducted multivariable logistic regression analyses to study the links between the gender, age and race/ethnicity of respondents, and the ways in which they utilized news sources, other resources, news priorities and story angles. Female respondents were more likely than males to say that educating people to make informed decisions and disseminating new, accurate information are important priorities. Female and minority journalists were more likely than white males to use a variety of sources, and to say it is important to develop the health and scientific literacy of audiences and influence public health behaviors. The gender and race/ethnicity of journalists play an important role in the production of health news. Health educators can foster improved coverage by learning more about the life experiences of health journalists and developing better working relationships with them.

Journalists' views about reporting avian influenza and a potential pandemic: a qualitative study

Please cite this paper as: Hooker et al. (20XX) Journalists’ views about reporting avian influenza and a potential pandemic: a qualitative study. Influenza and Other Respiratory Viruses 6(3), 224–229.

Background  The mass media is a key component of any public communication strategy for influenza or other respiratory illnesses, but coverage can be variable. In this study, we explored the factors that influenced journalists’ coverage of avian influenza as a model for coverage of a potential influenza pandemic.

Methods  This study involved semi‐structured interviews with 16 journalists from major Australian print, radio and television media organisations reporting on avian influenza and pandemic planning. Journalists, including reporters, editors and producers, were interviewed between October 2006 and August 2007. Thematic analysis was used to draw out major lessons for health communicators.

Results  Coverage of avian influenza was influenced by a small set of news values: catastrophic potential, cultural and geographical proximity, unfamiliarity and uncertainty. Lack of novelty and the absence of compelling images led to a decline in coverage. Journalists expressed concerns about the accuracy and impacts of reporting, but saw as critically important, their primary role as informants. They hence emphasised the importance of journalistic independence. Journalists all intended to continue working in a pandemic.

Conclusions  Health experts need to adapt their timetables and resources to journalists’ needs to improve their mutual communication. In crisis situations, journalists communicate with the public efficiently and effectively, but expert and journalistic views on the role and content of coverage may diverge in the post‐acute, reflective phase of a crisis.

Does it matter who writes medical news stories?

David Henry and colleagues review Australian news stories over a five-year period to assess whether quality is associated with who wrote the story: a specialist health journalist or a non-specialist.

Media coverage of health issues and how to work more effectively with journalists: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

The mass media has enormous potential to influence health-related behaviours and perceptions. Much research has focused on how the media frames health issues. This study sought to explore how journalists in Australia select and shape news on health issues.

METHODS

The study involved semi-structured interviews with 16 journalists from major Australian print, radio and television media organisations reporting on avian influenza and pandemic planning. Journalists, including reporters, editors and producers, were interviewed between October 2006 and August 2007. Thematic analysis was used to draw out major lessons for health communicators.

RESULTS

Journalists routinely attempted to balance different, sometimes competing, aims amidst significant operational constraints. They perceived the most trusted sources on health issues to be respected and independent doctors. Specialist health and medical reporters had a more sound technical knowledge, channels to appropriate sources, power within their organisations, and ability to advocate for better quality coverage.

CONCLUSIONS

An awareness of how to work with the media is essential for health communicators. This includes understanding journalists' daily routines, being available, providing resources, and building relationships with specialist health reporters.

Diffusion theory and knowledge dissemination, utilization, and integration in public health

Legislators and their scientific beneficiaries express growing concerns that the fruits of their investment in health research are not reaching the public, policy makers, and practitioners with evidence-based practices. Practitioners and the public lament the lack of relevance and fit of evidence that reaches them and barriers to their implementation of it. Much has been written about this gap in medicine, much less in public health. We review the concepts that have guided or misguided public health in their attempts to bridge science and practice through dissemination and implementation. Beginning with diffusion theory, which inspired much of public health's work on dissemination, we compare diffusion, dissemination, and implementation with related notions that have served other fields in bridging science and practice. Finally, we suggest ways to blend diffusion with other theory and evidence in guiding a more decentralized approach to dissemination and implementation in public health, including changes in the ways we produce the science itself.

Questioning `Black Humour': Racial Exploitation, Media and Health

This commentary explores the relevance of media racism to health psychology. While supporting Dr Estacio's call for health psychologists to get involved in promoting social justice via the media, we propose that health psychologists should not overstate the negative influence of the media on racism in society. Media content is complex and contradictory. It contains both racist and anti-racist representations. Challenging racism requires a conceptualization of links between the representational spaces provided by the media and the everyday geographic places within which inter-personal interactions and exploitation occur.

Media reporting of health interventions: signs of improvement, but major problems persist

Background

Studies have persistently shown deficiencies in medical reporting by the mainstream media. We have been monitoring the accuracy and comprehensiveness of medical news reporting in Australia since mid 2004. This analysis of more than 1200 stories in the Australian media compares different types of media outlets and examines reporting trends over time.

Methods and Findings

Between March 2004 and June 2008 1230 news stories were rated on a national medical news monitoring web site, Media Doctor Australia. These covered a variety of health interventions ranging from drugs, diagnostic tests and surgery to dietary and complementary therapies. Each story was independently assessed by two reviewers using ten criteria. Scores were expressed as percentages of total assessable items deemed satisfactory according to a coding guide. Analysis of variance was used to compare mean scores and Fishers exact test to compare proportions. Trends over time were analysed using un-weighted linear regression analysis. Broadsheet newspapers had the highest average satisfactory scores: 58% (95% CI 56–60%), compared with tabloid newspapers and online news outlets, 48% (95% CI 44–52) and 48% (95% CI 46–50) respectively. The lowest scores were assigned to stories broadcast by human interest/current affairs television programmes (average score 33% (95% CI 28–38)). While there was a non- significant increase in average scores for all outlets, a significant improvement was seen in the online news media: a rise of 5.1% (95%CI 1.32, 8.97; P 0.009). Statistically significant improvements were seen in coverage of the potential harms of interventions, the availability of treatment or diagnostic options, and accurate quantification of benefits.

Conclusion

Although the overall quality of medical reporting in the general media remains poor, this study showed modest improvements in some areas. However, the most striking finding was the continuing very poor coverage of health news by commercial current affairs television programs.