US Army Soldiers With Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus

US Army soldiers diagnosed with type 1 diabetes were previously considered unfit for duty. For highly motivated soldiers, current advanced technologies allow the possibility of not only retention on active duty, but military deployment. We present our experience at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, taking care of soldiers newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Through intensive diabetes education, extensive military and physical training, optimization of diabetes technology, and remote real-time monitoring, soldiers are able to continue to serve their country in the most specialized roles.

Identification of Main Factors Explaining Glucose Dynamics During and Immediately After Moderate Exercise in Patients With Type 1 Diabetes

BACKGROUND

Physical activity is recommended for patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D). However, without proper management, it can lead to higher risk for hypoglycemia and impaired glycemic control. In this work, we identify the main factors explaining the blood glucose dynamics during exercise in T1D. We then propose a prediction model to quantify the glycemic drop induced by a mild to moderate physical activity.

METHODS

A meta-data analysis was conducted over 59 T1D patients from 4 different studies in the United States and France (37 men and 22 women; 47 adults; weight, 71.4 ± 10.6 kg; age, 42 ± 10 years; 12 adolescents: weight, 60.7 ± 12.5 kg; age, 14.0 ± 1.4 years). All participants had physical activity between 3 and 5 pm at a mild to moderate intensity for approximately 30 to 45 min. A multiple linear regression analysis was applied to the data to identify the main parameters explaining the glucose dynamics during such physical activity.

RESULTS

The blood glucose at the beginning of exercise ([Formula: see text]), the ratio of insulin on board over total daily insulin ([Formula: see text]) and the age as a categorical variable (1 for adult, 0 for adolescents) were significant factors involved in glucose evolution at exercise (all P < .05). The multiple linear regression model has an R-squared of .6.

CONCLUSIONS

The main factors explaining glucose dynamics in the presence of mild-to-moderate exercise in T1D have been identified. The clinical parameters are formally quantified using real data collected during clinical trials. The multiple linear regression model used to predict blood glucose during exercise can be applied in closed-loop control algorithms developed for artificial pancreas.

Telemedicine in US Army soldiers with type 1 diabetes

A retrospective study of a telemedicine clinic for active duty US Army soldiers with type 1 diabetes was conducted. Fifty-one consecutive patients (mean age 33.9 years) were enrolled into the clinic. All soldiers with known or newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes received three weekly office visits for intensive diabetes education. After this, all communication occurred via a messaging system consisting of texting, web-based download, and/or email to a diabetes management team. For urgent matters, 24/7 direct paging or telephone access was provided. Routine adjustments in insulin dosing were accomplished via email. Soldiers were followed for a mean of 17.1 months. Baseline, three-month, and end of study glycated hemoglobin (A1C) values were 9.8, 7.3, and 6.9, respectively. There were no significant differences in end of study A1C levels between patients with known vs. newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes, nor were there any differences between those patients who received insulin via pump therapy vs. multiple daily injections. Telemedicine was safe and effective in lowering A1C levels in US Army soldiers with type 1 diabetes.

Managing blood glucose during and after exercise in Type 1 diabetes: reproducibility of glucose response and a trial of a structured algorithm adjusting insulin and carbohydrate intake

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

To enable people with Type 1 diabetes to exercise safely by investigating the reproducibility of the glucose response to an algorithm for carbohydrate and insulin adjustment during and after exercise compared to their self-management strategies.

BACKGROUND

Difficulties in managing blood glucose levels in Type 1 diabetes whilst exercising is known to deter people from exercise. Currently there is a limited evidence base to aid health care professionals enable people with diabetes to exercise safely. This study seeks to address this gap.

DESIGN

A quasi-experimental study was undertaken amongst people with Type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

Over 14 days, 14 participants undertook four exercise sessions (40 minutes at 50%VO2max). Two sessions were undertaken in week 1 self-managing their diabetes and two sessions in week 2 using an algorithm for carbohydrate and insulin adjustment.

RESULTS

The mean reduction of glucose levels detected by Continuous Glucose Monitoring during exercise was 3·1 (SD 2·03) mmol/l. Time spent within the range of 4-9 mmol/l during exercise was not significantly different between the self-managed and the algorithm weeks (-3-22·4 min). The mean reduction of blood glucose for each individual over all four exercise sessions ranged between 0·8-5·95 mmol/l. The technical error between days one and two was 2·4 mmol/l (CV=33·2%) and between days 3-4 the technical error was 2·7 mmol/l (CV=33·7%).

CONCLUSIONS

The results provide useful data about the reproducibility of the blood glucose response to moderate intensity exercise, despite the variability of individual responses 40 minutes of moderate intensity exercise decreases Continuous Glucose Monitoring glucose by 3 mmol/l with or without a 30% decrease of insulin before exercise.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

This information provides valuable baseline information for people with diabetes and health care professionals who wish to encourage physical activity and undertake further research in this area.

Insulin therapy and exercise

Medical nutrition therapy and physical exercise are the cornerstones of the diabetes management. Patients with type 1 DM always need exogenous insulin administration, recently available in the form of insulin analogs. In type 2 DM, characterized by increased insulin resistance and progressive decline of the beta-cell function, various antidiabetic medications are used. Most of the subjects with type 2 DM will finally need insulin. The main site of insulin action is the skeletal muscle, while the liver is the main site of glucose storage in the form of glycogen. With the modern diabetes therapies it is possible to rapidly reach and maintain normoglycemia in both types of DM but with the cost of higher incidence of hypoglycemia, especially related to exercise. Regular physical exercise causes a lot of beneficial effects in healthy as well as diabetic subjects of all age groups. In type 1 DM physical exercise is a fundamental element for both physical and mental development. In type 2 DM it has a main role in diabetes control. The increased hepatic glucose production and the increased muscular glucose uptake during exercise are closely interrelated in all exercise intensities. In diabetes mellitus there is a disturbed energy substrate use during exercise leading to either hypo- or hyperglycemia. The influence of low or moderate intensity aerobic exercise on diabetes control has been well studied. The inappropriately high insulinemia combined with the low glucose levels can lead to severe hypoglycemia if proper measures are not taken. Prolonged exercise can also predispose to decreased glucose counter regulation. It is better for the type 1 diabetic subject to postpone the exercise session in very high (>300 mg/dl) or very low (<70 mg/dl) BG levels. Every insulin treated subject is recommended to be checked for any existing diabetic complication before the start of every exercise program. Glucose measurement with glucose meters or sometimes with Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS) must be made before, during and most importantly after the end of the exercise session. It is recommended either to reduce or suspend the previous insulin dose depending on the insulin regime or to receive extra carbohydrates before, during or after the exercise session or both. Subjects with type 1 DM may participate at almost all the competitive sports if precautions are taken. These measures must be individualized and readjusted, even empirically. In very high intensity exercise (about 80% of VO(2 max)) or when high intensity exercise follows a low intensity one, there is a tendency of the BG to increase due to excessive circulating catecholamines necessitating postexercise short acting insulin. In anaerobic or resistance exercise lactic acid is produced. This exercise type is recommended for people in whom aerobic exercise is contraindicated. These two exercise types can be combined. The incidence of hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia in specific forms of resistance exercise as well as the appropriate insulin dose adjustment are not well studied. In conclusion all exercise types are beneficial for both types of diabetes.