The Growth Inhibitory Potential and Antimetastatic Effect of Camel Urine on Breast Cancer Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Is camel's urine friend or enemy? Review of its role in human health or diseases

Camels play an important role in the pastoral mode of life by fulfilling basic demands of livelihood. Various pathologies, such as tuberculosis, hemorrhoids, ascites, increased size of the abdomen, gas colic, anemia, and abdominal tumors, were treated with animal urine, including camels, horses, donkeys, sheep, goats, elephants, and buffalo. Thirty different compounds were analyzed in camel urine by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. For inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis, 28 important elements were analyzed in the urine of both camel and bovine. It was found that the inorganic elements are almost similar, except sodium, potassium, iron, zinc, and magnesium are higher in levels in camel urine, while chromium is high in bovine urine. Camel urine also contains different nanoparticles, crystals, and nano-rods with varying shapes and sizes, which offer potent selective cytotoxic activity against several lines of cancer cells. It is believed that the camel's urine has a therapeutic effect for a wide range of diseases such as chill, fever, or even tumors; therefore, it has been consumed in the Arabian Peninsula for a long time. Usually, patients take it directly or by mixing a few drops with camel milk. Camel urine is also used for therapeutic purposes, most widely in Asia, Africa, the United States, the United Kingdom, and other European countries. The religious aspect of using camel urine in treatment comes from the fact that there has been convincing evidence that the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) suggested the use of camel urine to treat his companions who were suffering from abdominal pains at that time. The camel's urine has anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties. It also has hepato-protective and cardiovascular effects.

The potential therapeutic role of Camel Milk Exosomes

Exosomes (EXOs) are naturally occurring tiny extracellular nanovesicles, which emancipate into the extracellular environment by exocytosis. By moving vital biological molecules (DNA, mRNA proteins, etc), EXOs contribute to intercellular communications. Camel milk (CM) as a valuable food, is rich of EXO. Nowadays, EXOs are promising delivery agents for several diseases therapy. Camel milk exosomes (CMEXOs) have unique ingredients in comparison to other animal milks. It is documented that CMEXOs reduce the growth of cancer cells through inducing apoptosis, inhibation of oxidative stress and inflammation occurance. By inhibation of inflammatory, and apoptosis pathways, CMEXOs could inhibit numerous of pathways, leading to adverse effects, due to drug levels over the therapeutic window. Moreover, CMEXOs exhibited a prominent property in improving the antioxidant capability in both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Moreover, the anti-angiogenesis property of CMEXOs was illustrated via decrease in expression of the angiogenesis-related gene; vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). It is expected that exosomal lactoferrin (LF) and kappa casein (KC) mRNAs are crucial parts of CMEXOs mediating their anticancer effects. The immunomodulatory effect of CMEXOs may be attributed to their high contents of LF and KC. According to previous works, CMEXOs are favorable elements in developing new therapeutic methods to remedy innumerable diseases. This review aims to provide an overview on the isolation, characterization and biological activities of the exosomes derived from camel milk for address their possible use in therapeutics.

Camels' biological fluids contained nanobodies: promising avenue in cancer therapy

Cancer is a major health concern and accounts for one of the main causes of death worldwide. Innovative strategies are needed to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of different types of cancers. Recently, there has been an evolving interest in utilizing nanobodies of camel origin as therapeutic tools against cancer. Nanotechnology uses nanobodies an emerging attractive field that provides promises to researchers in advancing different scientific sectors including medicine and oncology. Nanobodies are characteristically small-sized biologics featured with the ability for deep tissue penetration and dissemination and harbour high stability at high pH and temperatures. The current review highlights the potential use of nanobodies that are naturally secreted in camels’ biological fluids, both milk and urine, in the development of nanotechnology-based therapy for treating different typesQuery of cancers and other diseases. Moreover, the role of nano proteomics in the invention of novel therapeutic agents specifically used for cancer intervention is also illustrated.

Zootherapeutic uses of animals excreta: the case of elephant dung and urine use in Sayaboury province, Laos

BACKGROUND

Despite a widespread aversion towards faeces and urine, animal excreta are used in traditional medicine in many countries since centuries, but records are scattered and few therapeutic uses have been accurately documented while in the current context of emerging zoonoses such records may be of major interest.

METHODOLOGY

In this study, we investigated the therapeutic uses that mahouts in Xayaboury province, Lao PDR make of elephant urine and faeces as well as of the brood chamber that beetles (Heliocopris dominus) fashion from elephant dung. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with mahouts on elephant diet, health problems and responses to disease, andwhether they use elephant products. Data were supplemented by interviews with traditional healers.

RESULTS

Seven respondents reported the use of elephant urine in ethnoveterinary care for elephants and in human medicine in case of diabetes and otitis. 25 respondents reported therapeutic use of elephant faeces (EF) and elephant dung beetle brood chambers. The major indications are gastrointestinal and skin problems. Macerations or decoctions are drunk or used externally as a lotion. The mahouts attribute the therapeutic effectiveness of EFs to their content which includes the remains of many species from the elephant diet which they consider to be medicinal.

DISCUSSION

The indications of these uses are consistent with pharmacological and clinical studies highlighting the properties of different animals' urine and faeces and their curative potential tested in vivo. The acknowledgement by the mahouts of medicinal properties of elephant faecal bolus contrasts with the rare justifications of animal material use recorded in zootherapeutic studies, which falls within the symbolic domain. However, numerous studies highlight the preponderant role of the microbiota in physiological processes, raising the hypothesis of a curative action of EF, by rebalancing the user's microbiota.

CONCLUSION

The therapeutic uses of EF preparations despite their possible curative properties are a potential source of zoonotic transmission from elephants to humans. In the current context of globalisation of trade which favours the emergence of zoonoses and in relation with the issue of One Health, it becomes crucial to further document the zootherapeutic practices to prevent emerging diseases. As elephants and local related ethnoethological knowledge are threatened, documenting them is urgent to contribute to their preservation.

Anticancer, antiplatelet, gastroprotective and hepatoprotective effects of camel urine: A scoping review

Camel urine has traditionally been used to treat multiple human diseases and possesses the most beneficial effects amongst the urine of other animals. However, scientific review evaluating the anticancer, antiplatelet, gastroprotective and hepatoprotective effects of camel urine is still scarce. Thus, this scoping review aimed to provide scientific evidence on the therapeutic potentials of camel urine. Three databases were searched to identify relevant articles (Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus) up to September 2020. Original articles published in English that investigated the effects of camel urine in various diseases were included. The literature search identified six potential articles that met all the inclusion criteria. Three articles showed that camel urine possesses cytotoxic activities against different types of cancer cells. Two studies revealed camel urine's protective effects against liver toxicity and gastric ulcers, whilst another study showed the role of camel urine as an antiplatelet agent. All studies demonstrated significant positive effects with different effective dosages. Thus, camel urine shows promising therapeutic potential in treating human diseases, especially cancer. However, the standardised dosage and potential side effects should be determined before camel urine could be offered as an alternative treatment.

Loading-induced antitumor capability of murine and human urine

While urine has been considered as a useful bio-fluid for health monitoring, its dynamic changes to physical activity are not well understood. We examined urine's possible antitumor capability in response to medium-level, loading-driven physical activity. Urine was collected from mice subjected to 5-minute skeletal loading and human individuals before and after 30-minute step aerobics. Six cancer cell lines (breast, prostate, and pancreas) and a mouse model of the mammary tumor were employed to evaluate the effect of urine. Compared to urine collected prior to loading, urine collected post-activity decreased the cellular viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion of tumor cells, as well as tumor weight in the mammary fat pad. Detection of urinary volatile organic compounds and ELISA assays showed that the loading-conditioned urine reduced cholesterol and elevated dopamine and melatonin. Immunohistochemical fluorescent images presented upregulation of the rate-limiting enzymes for the production of dopamine and melatonin in the brain. Molecular analysis revealed that the antitumor effect was linked to the reduction in molecular vinculin-linked molecular force as well as the downregulation of the Lrp5-CSF1-CD105 regulatory axis. Notably, the survival rate for the high expression levels of Lrp5, CSF1, and CD105 in tumor tissues was significantly lowered in the Cancer Genome Atlas database. Collectively, this study revealed that 5- or 10-minute loading-driven physical activity was sufficient to induce the striking antitumor effect by activating the neuronal signaling and repressing cholesterol synthesis. The result supported the dual role of loading-conditioned urine as a potential tumor suppressor and a source of diagnostic biomarkers.

Antitumor and antioxidant effects of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau in 4 T1 tumor-bearing mice

Background

Clinacanthus nutans Lindau (C. nutans) is a species of in Acanthaceae family and primarily used in South East Asian countries. C. nutans is well known as Sabah snake grass in Malaysia, and its leaves have diverse medicinal potential in conventional applications, including cancer treatments. On the basis of literature search, there is less conclusive evidence of the involvement of phytochemical constituents in breast cancer, in particular, animal tumor models. The current study aimed to determine the antitumor and antioxidant activities of C. nutans extract in 4 T1 tumor-bearing mice.

Methods

C. nutans leaves were subjected to methanol extraction and divided into two different concentrations, 200 mg/kg (low-dose) and 1000 mg/kg (high-dose). The antitumor effects of C. nutans extracts were assessed using bone marrow smearing, clonogenic, and splenocyte immunotype analyses. In addition, hematoxylin and eosin, tumor weight and tumor volume profiles also used to indicate apoptosis appearance. Serum cytokine levels were examined using ELISA assay. In addition, nitric oxide assay reflecting antioxidant activity was performed.

Results

From the results obtained, the methanol extract of C. nutans leaves at 200 mg/kg (P < 0.05) and 1000 mg/kg (P < 0.05) showed a significant decrease in nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the blood. On the other hand, C. nutans extract (1000 mg/kg) also showed a significant decrease in the number of mitotic cells, tumor weight, and tumor volume. No inflammatory and adverse reactions related to splenocytes activities were found in all treated groups of mice. Despite its promising results, the concentration of both C. nutans extracts have also reduced the number of colonies formed in the liver and lungs.

Conclusion

In conclusion, C. nutans extracts exert antitumor and antioxidant activities against 4 T1 mouse breast model with no adverse effect and inflammatory response at high dose of 1000 mg/kg, indicating an effective and complementary approach for cancer prevention and treatment.

Characterization and Cellular Internalization of Spherical Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC) into Normal and Cancerous Fibroblasts

The aim was to isolate cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) from commercialized oil palm empty fruit bunch cellulose nanofibre (CNF) through sulphuric acid hydrolysis and explore its safeness as a potential nanocarrier. Successful extraction of CNC was confirmed through a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and attenuated total reflection Fourier transmission infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectrometry analysis. For subsequent cellular uptake study, the spherical CNC was covalently tagged with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC), resulting in negative charged FITC-CNC nanospheres with a dispersity (Ð) of 0.371. MTT assay revealed low degree cytotoxicity for both CNC and FITC-CNC against C6 rat glioma and NIH3T3 normal fibroblasts up to 50 µg/mL. FITC conjugation had no contribution to the particle's toxicity. Through confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), synthesized FITC-CNC manifested negligible cellular accumulation, indicating a poor non-selective adsorptive endocytosis into studied cells. Overall, an untargeted CNC-based nanosphere with less cytotoxicity that posed poor selectivity against normal and cancerous cells was successfully synthesized. It can be considered safe and suitable to be developed into targeted nanocarrier.

From Desert to Medicine: A Review of Camel Genomics and Therapeutic Products

Camels have an important role in the lives of human beings, especially in arid regions, due to their multipurpose role and unique ability to adapt to harsh conditions. In spite of its enormous economic, cultural, and biological importance, the camel genome has not been widely studied. The size of camel genome is roughly 2.38 GB, containing over 20,000 genes. The unusual genetic makeup of the camel is the main reason behind its ability to survive under extreme environmental conditions. The camel genome harbors several unique variations which are being investigated for the treatment of several disorders. Various natural products from camels have also been tested and prescribed as adjunct therapy to control the progression of ailments. Interestingly, the camel employs unique immunological and molecular mechanisms against pathogenic agents and pathological conditions. Here, we broadly review camel classification, distribution and breed as well as recent progress in the determination of the camel genome, its size, genetic distribution, response to various physiological conditions, immunogenetics and the medicinal potential of camel gene products.

Genetic variants analysis of three dromedary camels using whole genome sequencing data

Whole genome wide identification and annotation of genetic variations in camels is in its first steps. The aim of this study was the identification of genome wide variants, functional annotations of them and enrichment analysis of affected genes using whole genome sequencing data of three dromedary camels. The genomes of two Iranian female dromedary camels that mostly used to produce meat and milk were sequenced to 41.9-fold and 38.6-fold coverage. A total of 4,727,238 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 692,908 indels (insertions and deletions) were found by mapping raw reads to the dromedary reference assembly (GenBank Accession: GCA_000767585.1). In-silico functional annotation of the discovered variants in under study samples revealed that most SNPs (2,305,738; 48.78%) and indels (339,756; 49.03%) were located in intergenic regions. A comparison of the identified SNPs with those of the African camel (BioProject Accession: PRJNA269274) indicated that they had 993,474 SNPs in common. We found 15,168 non-synonymous SNPs in the shared variants of the three camels that could affect gene function and protein structure. Obtained results revealed that there were 7085, 6271 and 4688 non-synonymous SNPs among the 3436, 3058 and 2882 genes in the specific gene sets of Yazd dromedary, Trod dromedary and African dromedary, respectively. The list of genes predicted to be affected by non-synonymous variants in different individuals was subjected to gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis.

Therapeutic Effect of Camel Milk and Its Exosomes on MCF7 Cells In Vitro and In Vivo

Background/Objectives: In the Middle East, people consume camel milk regularly as it is believed to improve immunity against diseases and decrease the risk for cancer. Recently, it was noted that most of the beneficial effects of milk come from their nanoparticles, especially exosomes. Herein, we evaluated the anticancer potential of camel milk and its exosomes on MCF7 breast cancer cells (in vitro and in vivo) and investigated the possible underlying molecular mechanism of action. Methods/Results: Administration of camel milk (orally) and its exosomes (orally and by local injection) decreased breast tumor progression as evident by (a) higher apoptosis (indicated by higher DNA fragmentation, caspase-3 activity, Bax gene expression, and lower Bcl2 gene expression), (b) remarkable inhibition of oxidative stress (decrease in MDA levels and iNOS gene expression); (c) induction of antioxidant status (increased activities of SOD, CAT, and GPX), (d) notable reduction in expression of inflammation-(IL1b, NFκB), angiogenesis-(VEGF) and metastasis-(MMP9, ICAM1) related genes; and (e) higher immune response (high number of CD⁺4, CD⁺8, NK1.1 T cells in spleen). Conclusions: Overall, administration of camel milk–derived exosomes showed better anticancer effect, but less immune response, than treatment by camel milk. Moreover, local injection of exosomes led to better improvement than oral administration. These findings suggest that camel milk and its exosomes have anticancer effect possibly through induction of apoptosis and inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation, angiogenesis and metastasis in the tumor microenvironment. Thus, camel milk and its exosomes could be used as an anticancer agent for cancer treatment.