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Abdallah MF, Gado M, Abdelsadek D, Zahran F, El-Salhey NN, Mehrez O, Abdel-Hay S, Mohamed SM, De Ruyck K, Yang S, Gonzales GB, Varga E. Mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world: Highlighting the main knowledge gaps and the current legislation. Mycotoxin Res 2024; 40:19-44. [PMID: 38117428 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-023-00513-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of aflatoxins in the 1960s, knowledge in the mycotoxin research field has increased dramatically. Hundreds of review articles have been published summarizing many different aspects, including mycotoxin contamination per country or region. However, mycotoxin contamination in the Arab world, which includes 22 countries in Africa and Asia, has not yet been specifically reviewed. To this end, the contamination of mycotoxins in the Arab world was reviewed not only to profile the pervasiveness of the problem in this region but also to identify the main knowledge gaps imperiling the safety of food and feed in the future. To the best of our knowledge, 306 (non-)indexed publications in English, Arabic, or French were published from 1977 to 2021, focusing on the natural occurrence of mycotoxins in matrices of 14 different categories. Characteristic factors (e.g., detected mycotoxins, concentrations, and detection methods) were extracted, processed, and visualized. The main results are summarized as follows: (i) research on mycotoxin contamination has increased over the years. However, the accumulated data on their occurrences are scarce to non-existent in some countries; (ii) the state-of-the-art technologies on mycotoxin detection are not broadly implemented neither are contemporary multi-mycotoxin detection strategies, thus showing a need for capacity-building initiatives; and (iii) mycotoxin profiles differ among food and feed categories, as well as between human biofluids. Furthermore, the present work highlights contemporary legislation in the Arab countries and provides future perspectives to mitigate mycotoxins, enhance food and feed safety, and protect the consumer public. Concluding, research initiatives to boost mycotoxin research among Arab countries are strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed F Abdallah
- Department of Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt.
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Muhammad Gado
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | | | - Fatma Zahran
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Menoufia University, Shibin El-Kom, Menoufia, Egypt
| | - Nada Nabil El-Salhey
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Ohaila Mehrez
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Sara Abdel-Hay
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Tanta University, Tanta, Gharbia Governorate, Egypt
| | - Sahar M Mohamed
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Karl De Ruyck
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Shupeng Yang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Gerard Bryan Gonzales
- Nutrition, Metabolism and Genomics Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Elisabeth Varga
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Institute of Food Safety, Food Technology and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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2
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Francis S, Kortei NK, Sackey M, Richard SA. Aflatoxin B 1 induces infertility, fetal deformities, and potential therapies. Open Med (Wars) 2024; 19:20240907. [PMID: 38283584 PMCID: PMC10818061 DOI: 10.1515/med-2024-0907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is a subsidiary poisonous metabolite, archetypally spawned by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, which are often isolated in warm or tropical countries across the world. AFB1 is capable of disrupting the functioning of several reproductive endocrine glands by interrupting the enzymes and their substrates that are liable for the synthesis of various hormones in both males and females. In men, AFB1 is capable of hindering testicular development, testicular degeneration, and reduces reproductive capabilities. In women, a direct antagonistic interaction of AFB1 with steroid hormone receptors influencing gonadal hormone production of estrogen and progesterone was responsible for AFB1-associated infertility. AFB1 is potentially teratogenic and is responsible for the development of malformation in humans and animals. Soft-tissue anomalies such as internal hydrocephalus, microphthalmia, cardiac defects, augmented liver lobes, reproductive changes, immune modifications, behavioral changes and predisposition of animals and humans to neoplasm development are AFB1-associated anomalies. Substances such as esculin, selenium, gynandra extract, vitamins C and E, oltipraz, and CDDO-Im are potential therapies for AFB1. Thus, this review elucidates the pivotal pathogenic roles of AFB1 in infertility, fetal deformities, and potential therapies because AFB1 toxicity is a key problem globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sullibie Francis
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ho Teaching Hospital, P.O. Box MA-374, Ho, Ghana
| | - Nii Korley Kortei
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
| | - Marian Sackey
- Department of Pharmacy, Ho Teaching Hospital, P.O. Box MA-374, Ho, Ghana
| | - Seidu A. Richard
- Department of Medicine, Princefield University, P. O. Box MA128, Ho, Ghana
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3
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Benkerroum N, Ismail A. Human Breast Milk Contamination with Aflatoxins, Impact on Children's Health, and Possible Control Means: A Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:16792. [PMID: 36554670 PMCID: PMC9779431 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192416792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are natural toxicants produced mainly by species of the Aspergillus genus, which contaminate virtually all feeds and foods. Apart from their deleterious health effects on humans and animals, they can be secreted unmodified or carried over into the milk of lactating females, thereby posing health risks to suckling babies. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is the major and most toxic aflatoxin type after aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). It contaminates human breast milk upon direct ingestion from dairy products or by carry-over from the parent molecule (AFB1), which is hydroxylated in the liver and possibly in the mammary glands by cytochrome oxidase enzymes and then excreted into breast milk as AFM1 during lactation via the mammary alveolar epithelial cells. This puts suckling infants and children fed on this milk at a high risk, especially that their detoxifying activities are still weak at this age essentially due to immature liver as the main organ responsible for the detoxification of xenobiotics. The occurrence of AFM1 at toxic levels in human breast milk and associated health conditions in nursing children is well documented, with developing countries being the most affected. Different studies have demonstrated that contamination of human breast milk with AFM1 represents a real public health issue, which should be promptly and properly addressed to reduce its incidence. To this end, different actions have been suggested, including a wider and proper implementation of regulatory measures, not only for breast milk but also for foods and feeds as the upstream sources for breast milk contamination with AFM1. The promotion of awareness of lactating mothers through the organization of training sessions and mass media disclosures before and after parturition is of a paramount importance for the success of any action. This is especially relevant that there are no possible control measures to ensure compliance of lactating mothers to specific regulatory measures, which can yet be appropriate for the expansion of breast milk banks in industrialized countries and emergence of breast milk sellers. This review attempted to revisit the public health issues raised by mother milk contamination with AFM1, which remains undermined despite the numerous relevant publications highlighting the needs to tackle its incidence as a protective measure for the children physical and mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreddine Benkerroum
- Expertise Aliments Santé, Food Health Consultancy, 7450 Dollier Str., Montréal, QC H1S 2J6, Canada
| | - Amir Ismail
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan 60000, Pakistan
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Kortei NK, Annan T, Dzikunoo J, Agbetiameh D. Exposure assessment and risk characterization of aflatoxins intake through consumption of maize (Zea mays) in different age populations in the Volta Region of Ghana. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD CONTAMINATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1186/s40550-022-00099-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractAflatoxin contamination in foods is a vital health challenge for low and middle-income countries in subtropical regions. Maize (Zea mays L.), a staple food most widely grown in Africa including Ghana, and extensively consumed as much as three times per day, is a source of aflatoxin contamination owing to its susceptibility to fungal infection. Aflatoxin levels were checked against international (European Commission, EC) and local (Ghana Standards Authority, GSA) standards, and health risks associated with maize sampled from the Volta Region (Hohoe, Ho, Battor Dugame, and Keta) of Ghana were determined. Total aflatoxins (totalAFs) and the constituent aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2) were measured with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) with a Fluorescence Detector (FLD). Intake and Risk assessments were also conducted using deterministic models prescribed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Additives (JECFA). The degree of occurrence of aflatoxins was observed to be in decreasing order of AFG2 < AFG1 < AFB2 < AFB1 and were within the ranges of 0.78 ± 0.04 $$-$$
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234.73 ± 3.8 µg/kg, 0.47 ± 0.03 $$-$$
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21.6 ± 0.33 µg/kg, 1.01 ± 0.05 $$-$$
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13.75 ± 1.2 µg/kg and 0.66 ± 0.06 $$-$$
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5.51 ± 0.26 µg/kg respectively. Out of the 100 samples analyzed for total aflatoxins (totalAFs), 68 (68%) exceeded the limits of EC and were of range 4.98 ± 0.6 $$-$$
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445.01 ± 8.9 µg/kg whereas 58 (58%) and ranged between 12.12 ± 1.4 $$-$$
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445.01 ± 8.9 µg/kg exceeded GSA limits. Intake and risk assessments of total aflatoxins (totalAFs) for infants, toddlers, children, adolescents, and adults in the Volta Region were; 0.037–1.14 µg/kg bw/day, 0.35–10.81, and 1.47 -45.14 cases/10,000 person/yr respectively for Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Margin of Exposure (MOE), and Cancer Risks. It was inferred that the consumption of maize posed potential adverse health effects on all age categories studied because all calculated MOE values were less than 10,000.
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Prevalence of Aflatoxin Contamination in Peanuts and Peanut Butter from an Informal Market, Harare, Zimbabwe. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCE 2022; 2022:3761078. [PMID: 36147881 PMCID: PMC9489356 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3761078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Peanuts and peanut butter play an important role nutritionally in improving the diets of individuals in many parts of Africa, especially in the fight against child malnutrition. However, in developing countries such as Zimbabwe, most of the raw peanuts and peanut butter produced in backyard industries are sold in informal markets and rarely undergo formal safety inspection for aflatoxin contamination. The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence of aflatoxins in raw peanuts and backyard peanut butter sold at Mbare informal market. Ten (10) raw peanut samples and twenty (20) peanut butter samples were collected from Mbare informal market. Aflatoxin contamination was determined using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results revealed that sixty percent (60%) of the raw peanut samples were contaminated with total aflatoxin ranging from <0.75 to 426.4 μg/kg. One hundred percent (100%) of peanut butter samples were contaminated with total aflatoxins ranging from 4.7 μg/kg to 435.0 μg/kg. Aflatoxin B1 was the most prevalent aflatoxin in both raw peanuts (range, 1.2 μg/kg to 90.8 μg/kg) and peanut butter (range, 4.7 to 382.9 μg/kg). Forty percent (40%) of the raw peanuts and 95% of peanut butter samples exceeded the maximum limits of AFB1 as set by Zimbabwe legislation. The results suggest that raw peanuts and especially the peanut butter from backyard industries are heavily contaminated with aflatoxins and could constitute a possible health risk to consumers who regularly purchase these food commodities from informal markets.
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Kortei NK, Annan T, Kyei-Baffour V, Essuman EK, Boakye AA, Tettey CO, Boadi NO. Exposure assessment and cancer risk characterization of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) through ingestion of raw cow milk in southern Ghana. Toxicol Rep 2022; 9:1189-1197. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2022.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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The Presence of Mycotoxins in Human Amniotic Fluid. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13060409. [PMID: 34207874 PMCID: PMC8228883 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin exposure assessments through biomonitoring studies, based on the analysis of amniotic fluid, provides useful information about potential exposure of mothers and fetuses to ubiquitous toxic metabolites that are routinely found in food and the environment. In this study, amniotic fluid samples (n = 86) were collected via abdominal amniocentesis at 15–22 weeks of gestation from pregnant women with a high risk of chromosomal anomalies or genetic fetal defects detected during 1st trimester prenatal screening. These samples were analyzed for the presence of the most typical Aspergillus, Penicillium and Fusarium mycotoxins, with a focus on aflatoxins, ochratoxins and trichothecenes, using the LC-FLD/DAD method. The results showed that the toxin was present in over 75% of all the tested samples and in 73% of amniotic fluid samples from fetuses with genetic defects. The most frequently identified toxins were nivalenol (33.7%) ranging from <LOQ to 4037.6 ng/mL, and aflatoxins (31.4%), including aflatoxin G1, ranging from <LOQ to 0.4 ng/mL. Ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol were identified in 26.7% and 27.9% of samples, respectively. Bearing in mind the above, the detection of mycotoxin levels in amniotic fluid is useful for the estimation of overall risk characterization with an attempt to link the occurrence of fetal abnormalities with exposure to mycotoxins in utero.
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Ismail A, Naeem I, Gong YY, Routledge MN, Akhtar S, Riaz M, Ramalho LNZ, de Oliveira CAF, Ismail Z. Early life exposure to dietary aflatoxins, health impact and control perspectives: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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9
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Zinedine A, Ben Salah-Abbes J, Abbès S, Tantaoui-Elaraki A. Aflatoxin M1 in Africa: Exposure Assessment, Regulations, and Prevention Strategies - A Review. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 258:73-108. [PMID: 34611756 DOI: 10.1007/398_2021_73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are the most harmful mycotoxins causing health problems to human and animal. Many acute aflatoxin outbreaks have been reported in Africa, especially in Kenya and Tanzania. When ingested, aflatoxin B1 is converted by hydroxylation in the liver into aflatoxin M1, which is excreted in milk of dairy females and in urine of exposed populations. This review aims to highlight the AFM1 studies carried out in African regions (North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa), particularly AFM1 occurrence in milk and dairy products, and in human biological fluids (breast milk, serum, and urine) of the populations exposed. Strategies for AFM1 detoxification will be considered, as well as AFM1 regulations as compared to the legislation adopted worldwide and the assessment of AFM1 exposure of some African populations. Egypt, Kenya, and Nigeria have the highest number of investigations on AFM1 in the continent. Indeed, some reports showed that 100% of the samples analyzed exceeded the EU regulations (50 ng/kg), especially in Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Sudan, and Egypt. Furthermore, AFM1 levels up to 8,000, 6,999, 6,900, and 2040 ng/kg have been reported in milk from Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, and Nigeria, respectively. Data on AFM1 occurrence in human biological fluids have also shown that exposure of African populations is mainly due to milk intake and breastfeeding, with 85-100% of children being exposed to high levels. Food fermentation in Africa has been tried for AFM1 detoxification strategies. Few African countries have set regulations for AFM1 in milk and derivatives, generally similar to those of the Codex alimentarius, the US or the EU standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdellah Zinedine
- Faculty of Sciences, BIOMARE Laboratory, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnologies, Chouaib Doukkali University, El Jadida, Morocco.
| | - Jalila Ben Salah-Abbes
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorization, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Samir Abbès
- Laboratory of Genetic, Biodiversity and Bio-Resources Valorization, University of Monastir, Monastir, Tunisia
- Higher Institute of Biotechnology of Béja, University of Jendouba, Jendouba, Tunisia
| | - Abdelrhafour Tantaoui-Elaraki
- Retired, Department of Food Sciences, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine - Rabat, Rabat-Instituts, Témara, Morocco
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10
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Screening of the aflatoxin M 1 metabolite in urine samples of residents in Terengganu, Malaysia. Toxicon 2020; 186:120-125. [PMID: 32771393 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A study was conducted to screen the occurrence and level of aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in urine samples of 206 urban and rural residents in Terengganu, Malaysia. The level of AFM1 was quantified by competitive enzyme-linked immune-absorbent assay (ELISA). Of the 206 samples, 84 were positive for AFM1 (40.8%) in a range of 0.07-5.53 ng/ml (mean = 0.589 ng/ml). Residents of Terengganu are moderately exposed to AFM1. Age, ethnicity, marital status and employment status were associated with urinary level of AFM1. Subjects aged 30 years and above, non-Malays, married, and those unemployed had significantly higher levels of urinary AFM1 (p < 0.05). Since aflatoxin is recognised as a potent-carcinogen for liver cancer and a continuous exposure to this toxin can be fatal, the present findings could provide a baseline for future studies where larger samples and more advanced techniques might be used to find the possible effects of the exposure of this toxin on the community's health.
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Soriano JM, Rubini A, Morales-Suarez-Varela M, Merino-Torres JF, Silvestre D. Aflatoxins in organs and biological samples from children affected by kwashiorkor, marasmus and marasmic-kwashiorkor: A scoping review. Toxicon 2020; 185:174-183. [PMID: 32693007 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Originally, the kwashiorkor is a pathology justified by the low consumption of proteins and high carbohydrates in weaned children. However, today, it can appear due to multifactorial causes, one of the hypotheses being the presence of aflatoxins in foods consumed by the child population and detected in biological fluids. The objective of this work is to scoping review the presence of aflatoxins in kwashiorkor, marasmus and marasmic-kwashiorkor from organs and biological samples in children. Results reflected that the presence of aflatoxins in kwashiorkor is greater compared to marasmic-kwashiorkor and marasmus in the organs and biological samples analyzed. The relationship of this mycotoxin with the pathology shows that it can affect both genders, even up to 12 years, in addition they are detected in eight biological samples and organs, except in the spleen, and in ten African countries and in the Philippines. The appearance of this pathology has been associated in children when after weaning they consume foods with low protein content and rich in carbohydrates, but coincidentally coincides with foods where the growth of aflatoxigenic fungi is more prevalent, and even the presence of other fungi that can generate other mycotoxins, such as ochratoxin A and fumonisin B1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose M Soriano
- Food & Health Lab, Institute of Materials Science, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Joint Research Unit on Endocrinology, Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics, University of Valencia-Health Research Institute La Fe, Spain.
| | - Ana Rubini
- Food & Health Lab, Institute of Materials Science, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Departament of Pharmacy, Cardenal Herrera-CEU University, Spain
| | - María Morales-Suarez-Varela
- Unit of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Food Sciences, Toxicology and Forensic Medicine, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicente Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Valencia, Spain; CIBER in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Avda. Monforte de Lemos 3-5, Pabellón 11, Planta 0, 28029, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan F Merino-Torres
- Joint Research Unit on Endocrinology, Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics, University of Valencia-Health Research Institute La Fe, Spain; Department of Endocrinology and Nutrition, University and Polytechnic Hospital La Fe, Spain
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12
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Benkerroum N. Chronic and Acute Toxicities of Aflatoxins: Mechanisms of Action. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E423. [PMID: 31936320 PMCID: PMC7013914 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17020423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
There are presently more than 18 known aflatoxins most of which have been insufficiently studied for their incidence, health-risk, and mechanisms of toxicity to allow effective intervention and control means that would significantly and sustainably reduce their incidence and adverse effects on health and economy. Among these, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been by far the most studied; yet, many aspects of the range and mechanisms of the diseases it causes remain to be elucidated. Its mutagenicity, tumorigenicity, and carcinogenicity-which are the best known-still suffer from limitations regarding the relative contribution of the oxidative stress and the reactive epoxide derivative (Aflatoxin-exo 8,9-epoxide) in the induction of the diseases, as well as its metabolic and synthesis pathways. Additionally, despite the well-established additive effects for carcinogenicity between AFB1 and other risk factors, e.g., hepatitis viruses B and C, and the hepatotoxic algal microcystins, the mechanisms of this synergy remain unclear. This study reviews the most recent advances in the field of the mechanisms of toxicity of aflatoxins and the adverse health effects that they cause in humans and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noreddine Benkerroum
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry MacDonald Campus, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste Anne de Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
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13
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Tesfamariam K, De Boevre M, Kolsteren P, Belachew T, Mesfin A, De Saeger S, Lachat C. Dietary mycotoxins exposure and child growth, immune system, morbidity, and mortality: a systematic literature review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:3321-3341. [PMID: 31694387 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1685455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to systematically review associations between dietary mycotoxins exposure and child growth and morbidity of children aged 5 years or younger. Peer-reviewed literature was searched in MEDLINE, EMBASE, COCHRANE, CINAHL, Web of Science, and PsycINFO. Experimental and observational studies were considered. The exposures were dietary mycotoxins during pregnancy, lactation and childhood, and mycotoxins concentrations in the diet, breast milk, urine, and blood. From a total of 4869 references, 86 full-text papers were extracted of which 50 were included in this review. The methodological quality and risk of bias were evaluated and quality of the collective evidence was assessed using GRADE. Uncertainty remains whether mycotoxins exposure affects child growth, immunity and mortality and the overall quality of the evidence is very low. Overall however, we cannot rule out a possible association between dietary mycotoxins, in particular, AF and FUM and child malnutrition. Our analyses were limited by the reporting quality, difference in findings, heterogeneity of outcomes, mycotoxins detection methods, and the observational nature of most studies. Robust study designs with adequate sample size, use of validated biomarkers of exposure and assessment of co-occurrence of mycotoxins and their synergistic effects are required to provide the further evidence regarding a potential effect of dietary mycotoxins exposure on child growth and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kokeb Tesfamariam
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Public Health, Ambo University, Ambo, Ethiopia.,Department of Population and Family Health, Faculty of Public Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Patrick Kolsteren
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tefera Belachew
- Department of Population and Family Health, Faculty of Public Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Addisalem Mesfin
- Department of Population and Family Health, Faculty of Public Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia.,Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Department of Human Nutrition, College of Agriculture, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Center of Excellence in Mycotoxicology and Public Health, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Carl Lachat
- Department of Food Technology, Safety and Health, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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14
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Slobodchikova I, Sivakumar R, Rahman MS, Vuckovic D. Characterization of Phase I and Glucuronide Phase II Metabolites of 17 Mycotoxins Using Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E433. [PMID: 31344861 PMCID: PMC6723440 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Routine mycotoxin biomonitoring methods do not include many mycotoxin phase I and phase II metabolites, which may significantly underestimate mycotoxin exposure especially for heavily metabolized mycotoxins. Additional research efforts are also needed to measure metabolites in vivo after exposure and to establish which mycotoxin metabolites should be prioritized for the inclusion during large-scale biomonitoring efforts. The objective of this study was to perform human in vitro microsomal incubations of 17 mycotoxins and systematically characterize all resulting metabolites using liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The results obtained were then used to build a comprehensive LC-MS library and expand a validated 17-mycotoxin method for exposure monitoring to screening of additional 188 metabolites, including 100 metabolites reported for the first time. The final method represents one of the most comprehensive LC-HRMS methods for mycotoxin biomonitoring or metabolism/fate studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Slobodchikova
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
- Centre for Biological Applications of Mass Spectrometry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Reajean Sivakumar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Md Samiur Rahman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Dajana Vuckovic
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
- Centre for Biological Applications of Mass Spectrometry, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, QC H4B 1R6, Canada.
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Ayofemi Olalekan Adeyeye S. Aflatoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in food: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:709-721. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1548429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Ayofemi Olalekan Adeyeye
- Department for Management of Science and Technology Development, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
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16
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The role of mycotoxins in the human exposome: Application of mycotoxin biomarkers in exposome-health studies. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:504-518. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 09/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Vidal A, Mengelers M, Yang S, De Saeger S, De Boevre M. Mycotoxin Biomarkers of Exposure: A Comprehensive Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2018; 17:1127-1155. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Arnau Vidal
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Dept. of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Ghent Univ.; Ghent Belgium
| | - Marcel Mengelers
- Dept. of Food Safety; National Inst. of Public Health and the Environment; Bilthoven The Netherlands
| | - Shupeng Yang
- Inst. of Apicultural Research, Chinese Acad. of Agricultural Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bee Products for Quality and Safety Control, Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Quality and Safety of Bee Products; Bee Product Quality Supervision and Testing Center; Ministry of Agriculture Beijing 100093 People's Republic of China
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Dept. of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Ghent Univ.; Ghent Belgium
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Dept. of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Ghent Univ.; Ghent Belgium
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Peanuts, Aflatoxins and Undernutrition in Children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nutrients 2017; 9:nu9121287. [PMID: 29186859 PMCID: PMC5748738 DOI: 10.3390/nu9121287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea) is an important and affordable source of protein in most of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and a popular commodity and raw material for peanut butter, paste and cooking oil. It is a popular ingredient for foods used at the point of weaning infants from mother's milk. It is at this critical point that childhood undernutrition occurs and the condition manifests as stunting, wasting and growth restriction and accounts for nearly half of all deaths in children under five years of age in SSA. Undernutrition is multi-factorial but weaning foods contaminated with microbiological agents (bacteria and fungi) and natural toxins have been shown to play a big part. While peanuts may provide good nutrition, they are also highly prone to contamination with mycotoxigenic fungi. The high nutritive value of peanuts makes them a perfect substrate for fungal growth and potential aflatoxin contamination. Aflatoxins are highly carcinogenic and mutagenic mycotoxins. This article reviews the nutritional value and aflatoxin contamination of peanuts, the role they play in the development of childhood malnutrition (including the different theories of aetiology) and immunological problems in children. We also discuss the control strategies that have been explored and advocacy work currently taking shape in Africa to create more awareness of aflatoxins and thus combat their occurrence with the goal of reducing exposure and enhancing trade and food safety.
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Ayelign A, Woldegiorgis AZ, Adish A, De Boevre M, Heyndrickx E, De Saeger S. Assessment of aflatoxin exposure among young children in Ethiopia using urinary biomarkers. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2017; 34:1606-1616. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2017.1350290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Abebe Ayelign
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
- Center for Food Science and Nutrition, College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Food Science and Postharvest Technology, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
| | - Ashagrie Zewdu Woldegiorgis
- Center for Food Science and Nutrition, College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Abdulaziz Adish
- Micronutrient Initiative (MI), Deputy Regional Director, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ellen Heyndrickx
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Watson S, Gong YY, Routledge M. Interventions targeting child undernutrition in developing countries may be undermined by dietary exposure to aflatoxin. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 57:1963-1975. [PMID: 26176888 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2015.1040869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Child undernutrition, a form of malnutrition, is a major public health burden in developing countries. Supplementation interventions targeting the major micronutrient deficiencies have only reduced the burden of child undernutrition to a certain extent, indicating that there are other underlying determinants that need to be addressed. Aflatoxin exposure, which is also highly prevalent in developing countries, may be considered an aggravating factor for child undernutrition. Increasing evidence suggests that aflatoxin exposure can occur in any stage of life, including in utero through a trans-placental pathway and in early childhood (through contaminated weaning food and family food). Early life exposure to aflatoxin is associated with adverse effects on low birth weight, stunting, immune suppression, and the liver function damage. The mechanisms underlying impaired growth and aflatoxin exposure are still unclear but intestinal function damage, reduced immune function, and alteration in the insulin-like growth factor axis caused by the liver damage are the suggested hypotheses. Given the fact that both aflatoxin and child undernutrition are common in sub-Saharan Africa, effective interventions aimed at reducing undernutrition cannot be satisfactorily achieved until the interactive relationship between aflatoxin and child undernutrition is clearly understood, and an aflatoxin mitigation strategy takes effect in those vulnerable mothers and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinead Watson
- a Institute for Global Food Safety, Queen's University Belfast , Belfast , United Kingdom
| | - Yun Yun Gong
- a Institute for Global Food Safety, Queen's University Belfast , Belfast , United Kingdom
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Determination of aflatoxin M1 in urine samples indicates frequent dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 in the Bangladeshi population. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2017; 220:271-281. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Revised: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Fromme H, Gareis M, Völkel W, Gottschalk C. Overall internal exposure to mycotoxins and their occurrence in occupational and residential settings – An overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2016; 219:143-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Determination of urinary biomarkers for assessment of short-term human exposure to aflatoxins in São Paulo, Brazil. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:1996-2007. [PMID: 25007123 PMCID: PMC4113737 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6071996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, a longitudinal assessment was carried out to evaluate the short-term human exposure to aflatoxins in Pirassununga region, São Paulo, Brazil, by determination of urinary aflatoxins by a liquid chromatography coupled to mass sprectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Sixteen volunteers with ages ranging from 14 to 55 years old were instructed to collect the early morning first urine four times every three months, from June 2011 to March 2012, totaling 64 samples. Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) was found in 39 samples (61%) at levels ranging from 0.19 to 12.7 pg·mg-1 creatinine (mean: 1.2 ± 2.0 pg·mg-1 creatinine). Residues of aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 and aflatoxicol were not identified in any urine sample. No significant difference was found among the AFM1 mean levels in urine samples collected in the four sampling periods. The levels of AFM1 found in urine samples indicate a low short-term exposure of the population studied to aflatoxins through the diet, although further investigations are needed to assess other long-term biomarkers of exposure to AFB1.
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25
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Ezekiel CN, Warth B, Ogara IM, Abia WA, Ezekiel VC, Atehnkeng J, Sulyok M, Turner PC, Tayo GO, Krska R, Bandyopadhyay R. Mycotoxin exposure in rural residents in northern Nigeria: a pilot study using multi-urinary biomarkers. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2014; 66:138-145. [PMID: 24583186 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Revised: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
A pilot, cross-sectional, correlational study was conducted in eight rural communities in northern Nigeria to investigate mycotoxin exposures in 120 volunteers (19 children, 20 adolescents and 81 adults) using a modern LC-MS/MS based multi-biomarker approach. First morning urine samples were analyzed and urinary biomarker levels correlated with mycotoxin levels in foods consumed the day before urine collection. A total of eight analytes were detected in 61/120 (50.8%) of studied urine samples, with ochratoxin A, aflatoxin M1 and fumonisin B1 being the most frequently occurring biomarkers of exposure. These mycotoxin biomarkers were present in samples from all age categories, suggestive of chronic (lifetime) exposures. Rough estimates of mycotoxin intake suggested some exposures were higher than the tolerable daily intake. Overall, rural consumer populations from Nasarawa were more exposed to several mixtures of mycotoxins in their diets relative to those from Kaduna as shown by food and urine biomarker data. This study has shown that mycotoxin co-exposure may be a major public health challenge in rural Nigeria; this calls for urgent intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chibundu N Ezekiel
- Mycotoxicology Research Unit, Department of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria; Pathology/Mycotoxin Laboratory, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria.
| | - Benedikt Warth
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Isaac M Ogara
- Faculty of Agriculture, Nasarawa State University Keffi, Lafia Campus, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
| | - Wilfred A Abia
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, Cameroon; Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | - Joseph Atehnkeng
- Pathology/Mycotoxin Laboratory, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Paul C Turner
- MIAEH, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Grace O Tayo
- Department of Agriculture and Industrial Technology, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Nigeria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department of Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenzstr. 20, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Ranajit Bandyopadhyay
- Pathology/Mycotoxin Laboratory, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, P.M.B. 5320, Ibadan, Nigeria
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Solfrizzo M, Gambacorta L, Visconti A. Assessment of multi-mycotoxin exposure in southern Italy by urinary multi-biomarker determination. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:523-38. [PMID: 24476712 PMCID: PMC3942749 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6020523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human exposure assessment to deoxynivalenol (DON), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisin B1 (FB1), zearalenone (ZEA) and ochratoxin A (OTA) can be performed by measuring their urinary biomarkers. Suitable biomarkers of exposure for these mycotoxins are DON + de-epoxydeoxynivalenol (DOM-1), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), FB1, ZEA + α-zearalenol (α-ZOL) + β-zearalenol (β-ZOL) and OTA, respectively. An UPLC-MS/MS multi-biomarker method was used to detect and measure incidence and levels of these biomarkers in urine samples of 52 volunteers resident in Apulia region in Southern Italy. The presence of ZEA + ZOLs, OTA, DON, FB1 and AFM1 were detected in 100%, 100%, 96%, 56% and 6%, of samples, respectively. All samples contained biomarkers of two or more mycotoxins. The mean concentrations of biomarkers ranged from 0.055 ng/mL (FB1) to 11.89 ng/mL (DON). Urinary biomarker concentrations were used to estimate human exposure to multiple mycotoxin. For OTA and DON, 94% and 40% of volunteers, respectively exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for these mycotoxins. The estimated human exposure to FB1 and ZEA was largely below the TDI for these mycotoxins for all volunteers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Solfrizzo
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Lucia Gambacorta
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Angelo Visconti
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production (ISPA), National Research Council (CNR), Bari 70126, Italy.
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Turner PC. The molecular epidemiology of chronic aflatoxin driven impaired child growth. SCIENTIFICA 2013; 2013:152879. [PMID: 24455429 PMCID: PMC3881689 DOI: 10.1155/2013/152879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are toxic secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate dietary staples in tropical regions; chronic high levels of exposure are common for many of the poorest populations. Observations in animals indicate that growth and/or food utilization are adversely affected by aflatoxins. This review highlights the development of validated exposure biomarkers and their use here to assess the role of aflatoxins in early life growth retardation. Aflatoxin exposure occurs in utero and continues in early infancy as weaning foods are introduced. Using aflatoxin-albumin exposure biomarkers, five major studies clearly demonstrate strong dose response relationships between exposure in utero and/or early infancy and growth retardation, identified by reduced birth weight and/or low HAZ and WAZ scores. The epidemiological studies include cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys, though aflatoxin reduction intervention studies are now required to further support these data and guide sustainable options to reduce the burden of exposure. The use of aflatoxin exposure biomarkers was essential in understanding the observational data reviewed and will likely be a critical monitor of the effectiveness of interventions to restrict aflatoxin exposure. Given that an estimated 4.5 billion individuals live in regions at risk of dietary contamination the public health concern cannot be over stated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Craig Turner
- Maryland Institute for Applied Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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Exposure measurement of aflatoxins and aflatoxin metabolites in human body fluids. A short review. Mycotoxin Res 2012; 28:79-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-012-0129-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2011] [Revised: 03/06/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Piekkola S, Turner PC, Abdel-Hamid M, Ezzat S, El-Daly M, El-Kafrawy S, Savchenko E, Poussa T, Woo JCS, Mykkänen H, El-Nezami H. Characterisation of aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol exposure among pregnant Egyptian women. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2012; 29:962-71. [PMID: 22376138 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2012.658442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins such as the aflatoxins and deoxynivalenol (DON) are frequent contaminants of food. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and DON affect the immune system and restrict growth; additionally AFB1 is carcinogenic. To date there are limited descriptive biomarker data concerning maternal exposures during pregnancy, and none on co-exposures to these mycotoxins. This survey was a cross-sectional assessment providing descriptive data on the concentrations of serum aflatoxin-albumin (AF-alb), urinary aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), and urinary DON for 98 pregnant women from Egypt, in relation to diet and socioeconomic status, during the third trimester. AF-alb was detected in 34 of 98 (35%) samples, geometric mean (GM) of positives = 4.9 pg AF-lys mg(-1) albumin (95% confidence interval (CI) = 4.1-5.8 pg mg(-1)), and AFM1 in 44 of 93 (48%) samples, GM of positives = 19.7 pg mg(-1) creatinine (95%CI = 14.8-26.3 pg mg(-1)). AF-alb and AFM1 levels were positively correlated (R = 0.276, p = 0.007). DON was detected in 63 of 93 (68%), GM of positives = 2.8 ng mg(-1) (95%CI = 2.1-3.6 ng mg(-1)). Aflatoxin and DON biomarkers were observed in 41% of the subjects concurrently. The frequency and level of these biomarkers in Egyptian women were modest compared with known high-risk countries. However, this study represents the first biomarker survey to report on the occurrence of DON biomarkers in an African population, in addition to the co-occurrence of these two potent mycotoxins. This combined exposure may be of particular concern during pregnancy given the potential of toxin transfer to the foetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Piekkola
- Food and Health Research Centre, Department of Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, PO Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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Tomerak RH, Shaban HH, Khalafallah OA, El Shazly MN. Assessment of exposure of Egyptian infants to aflatoxin M1 through breast milk. J Egypt Public Health Assoc 2011; 86:51-55. [PMID: 21844759 DOI: 10.1097/01.epx.0000399138.90797.40] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mothers are exposed to many toxins that can reach their infants through breast milk. One of these toxins is aflatoxins, produced by Aspergillus fungus. Aspergillus colonizes grains, especially in tropical regions where there is high temperature and humidity. Aflatoxins are highly toxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic. One of these is aflatoxin B1 that is excreted in breast milk as aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). MATERIALS AND METHODS This is a cross-sectional study in which 150 mother-infant dyads were included. All the infants were exclusively breastfed. Infant weights' standard deviation scores were documented at birth and at 6 months. At 6 months, before starting weaning, AFM1 was measured in breast milk by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and by liver enzymes; alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) for all mothers and infants. RESULTS Ninety-eight mothers (65.3%) had AFM1-positive breast milk samples (AFM1>0.05 μg/l according to the European Community and Codex Alimentarius). AFM1 levels ranged between 0.2 and 19.0 μg/l (mean: 7.1±5.0 μg/l). In cases considered negative, AFM1 levels ranged between 0.01and 0.05 μg/l (mean: 0.04±0.01 μg/l). Infants of AFM1-positive mothers had lower weight standard deviation scores at birth and at 6 months (P=0.04 and 0.0001). ALT and aspartate aminotransferase of mothers and ALT of infants were significantly higher in dyads having AFM1-positive breast milk (P=0.0001, 0.0001, and 0.03, respectively). CONCLUSION Aflatoxins represent a real threat in Egypt. The higher liver enzymes in AFM1-positive cases might represent an alarm toward future development of hepatocellular carcinoma. RECOMMENDATIONS Cooperation of ministries is recommended to combat this problem. The public should be educated about proper food storage and about the hazards of aflatoxin ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rania H Tomerak
- Paediatrics and Neonatology, Department of Paediatrics bDepartment of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Medicine cCentre of Social and Preventive Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Turner PC, Loffredo C, Kafrawy SE, Ezzat S, Eissa SAL, Daly ME, Nada O, Abdel-Hamid M. Pilot survey of aflatoxin–albumin adducts in sera from Egypt. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2008; 25:583-7. [DOI: 10.1080/02652030701713939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Polychronaki N, Wild CP, Mykkänen H, Amra H, Abdel-Wahhab M, Sylla A, Diallo M, El-Nezami H, Turner PC. Urinary biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure in young children from Egypt and Guinea. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:519-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 08/23/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Abstract
The Mediterranean area represents the area of land that borders the Mediterranean basin. It is composed of several countries that share many geographic and racial characteristics. Although Mediterraneans seem to share common skin type and are subjected to similar enviromental factors, they still represent a genetic and socioeconomic diversity. True prevalence of pigmentary disorders in this area depends on large epidemiologic studies, including countries that are not available. This article, however, highlights and classifies the most important developmental (heritable-genetic) and acquired pigmentary disorders seen and reported in this important area of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medhat A El-Mofty
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.
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Hassan AM, Sheashaa HA, Abdel Fatah MF, Ibrahim AZ, Gaber OA. Does aflatoxin as an environmental mycotoxin adversely affect the renal and hepatic functions of Egyptian lactating mothers and their infants? A preliminary report. Int Urol Nephrol 2007; 38:339-42. [PMID: 16868707 DOI: 10.1007/s11255-006-0056-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUNDS/AIMS Aflatoxin as a mycotoxin constitutes a real human threat. Its presence in human milk was previously reported in different countries. This work is the first Egyptian report that aimed to assess the presence of aflatoxin in both mothers' milk and the infants' sera and studied its correlation with infants' kidney functions. METHODS Fifty healthy breast lactating mothers and their infants who were exclusively breast fed for at least 4 months were included. All of them were subjected to thorough laboratory evaluation including determination of aflatoxin concentration by high performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS Twenty-four mothers (48%) and their infants had been contaminated with aflatoxin with the following mean contamination levels (ng/ml); mothers' serum of 8.9+/-4.2, mothers' milk of 1.9+/-0.6 and infants' serum of 1.8+/-0.9. The presence of this contamination level is not associated with renal or hepatic dysfunction. CONCLUSION Mothers and their infants in our locality showed a relatively high aflatoxin contamination rate. We did not find a correlation of this contamination level and either renal or hepatic dysfunction.
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