What Is Digital Parenting? A Systematic Review of Past Measurement and Blueprint for the Future

Evaluating a Mobile App Supporting Evidence-Based Parenting Skills: Thematic Analysis of Parent Experience

Background

Disruptive behavior disorders are among the most common disorders of childhood, and evidence-based parenting programs are the first-line treatment. Digital microinterventions have been proposed as one possible means of supporting parenting style change by giving parents in-the-moment advice about how to respond to challenging behavior. Until now, no digital microintervention supporting evidence-based parenting skills programs has been evaluated.

Objective

The aim of this study is to evaluate the subjective experience of parents using a digital microintervention to support evidence-based parenting skills, with particular attention to acceptability, usability, family relationships, and parents' values.

Methods

We conducted serial interviews with 11 parents of 33 children before and after spending 3 weeks using an app including 3 digital microinterventions. Parents were recruited via local authorities in the Midlands region of the United Kingdom. Previous participation in a parenting program was an inclusion criterion. Interviews explored family composition; child behavior problems; and experience of using the mobile app, including barriers to use. Thematic analysis was conducted from a user-centered design perspective, and illustrative case vignettes were produced.

Results

Many parents used the app in ways that helped them rather than strictly following the instructions they were given. Parents described a range of barriers to using the app including practical problems and failure to change child behavior. Parents and children responded in a variety of ways to the use of the phone, with many wholeheartedly embracing the convenience of technology. Case vignettes illustrate the uniqueness of each family's experience.

Conclusions

Parents' use of a mobile app supporting evidence-based parenting skills is difficult to predict due to the unique challenges each family encounters. Many parents found it an acceptable and helpful addition to family life, but increased personalization is likely to be key to supporting parents. Future digital microintervention developers should keep in mind that parents are likely to use the app pragmatically rather than following instructions, may struggle to use a complex app under pressure, and are likely to hold complex feelings about parenting with an app.

Adolescent digital emotion regulation

The maturation of effective emotion regulation (ER) skills is a core achievement of adolescence and youth are now developing their ER habits and skills in a hybrid reality of digital and non-digital experiences. We present a new model of adolescent digital emotion regulation as a conceptual framework to help guide burgeoning research in this area. We distinguish two primary processes: the regulation of emotions that have been elicited within digital contexts (i.e., the regulation of digitally induced emotions), and how youth regulate their emotions through digital means (i.e., digitally regulated emotion). Following the explication of different pathways in the model and consideration of the affordances of digital contexts, we highlight how this framework connects to theory and guides future research.

Risk factors for technology addiction in young children ages 2-5 years

PURPOSE

This study was conducted to determine the factors predictive of technology addiction in young children (aged 2-5 years). The study examined the effects of digital parenting awareness, parental stress, family demographic characteristics and parents' technology use habits on technology addiction in young children.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted between October 2023 and February 2024 with 401 volunteer parents of children aged 2-5 years in a province in the Western Mediterranean region of Turkey. Data were collected using the Technology Addiction Scale for Ages 2-5, the Digital Parental Awareness Scale, and the Parental Stress Scale.

RESULTS

Digital parenting awareness, negative modeling and digital neglect, and parental stress positively and directly affect technology addiction in young children (β1 = 0.166, β2 = 0.443, β3 = 0.087, all p < 0.05). Additionally, parental gender (β = 0.095), parental marital status (β = 0.092), and household income (β = 0.088) were significant predictors of technology addiction in young children (p < 0.05). The level of technology addiction is significantly higher in children who use devices without parental controls (Z = -6.187, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Low digital parenting awareness, high parental stress, male caregivers, low household income and single-parent families in digital tools increase the risk of technology addiction in young children (2-5 years). Multidisciplinary, family-oriented intervention programs, incorporating consideration of parental risk factors, should be developed to prevent and reduce technology addiction in this group.

Effective parental strategies against problematic smartphone use among adolescents: A 6-month prospective study

Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU) among adolescents is growing problem worldwide and multiple studies investigated its associated parental risk and protective factors. The available studies, however, typically do not address the multidimensional nature of PSU. They also rely heavily on cross-sectional designs with a small number of potentially contributing variables. This 6-month prospective study examines the relationships between a large range of parental factors with the three known dimensions of PSU: social environment pressure, emotional gain, and addiction-like behaviors. Specifically the study examines whether, and to what extent, the various dimensions of current and future PSU are related to parental support giving, general quality of communication, specific communication about smartphone use, and the four common mediation strategies. The sample comprised 1187 triads of mothers, fathers, and adolescents. The data-analysis pipeline consisted of three consecutive phases: (1) analyses of parental factors at baseline, (2) analyses of parental factors change over 6-months, and (3) interaction analyses between parental factors and the time-period of the study. The pipeline elicited three factors that moderated the change in PSU over time: Communication about smartphones with mothers, parental support giving, and parental co-use. The implications of these findings are discussed in the context of the existing literature and the familial, microsystem theoretical framework. Altogether, this prospective study scrutinized key parental factors and strategies that could be utilized by parents for coping with one of the most difficult parenting challenges of the digital era. Further research may build upon these findings to develop designated interventions to reduce PSU.

Family factors related to adolescent screen media use and mental health outcomes: A systematic review and recommendation for practices

INTRODUCTION

Screen media serves an essential role in adolescents' lives, posing growth opportunities and mental health challenges. Family plays a crucial role in mitigating these challenges. This systematic review offers a comprehensive analysis of the family factors related to adolescent screen media use and mental health.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Embase, adhering to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines using the following inclusion criteria: English, peer-reviewed, observational design, and published since 2013; adolescent samples aged 10-17 years; and examining screen media use, family factors, and internalizing problems. The role of family factors as predictors, moderators, and mediators was also examined.

RESULTS

Of the 3587 records, 32 met the inclusion criteria. These studies, primarily cross-sectional, presented a global perspective of 14 countries. A heterogeneous range of family factors, screen media use, and mental health outcomes were examined, revealing significant associations between elevated screen media use and internalizing problems. Positive family processes and democratic media-specific parenting mitigate such association. A few studies underscored family socioeconomic status (SES), noting elevated screen media use and mental health risks among adolescents in families of low SES.

CONCLUSIONS

Accumulating evidence supports the important role of positive family contexts in fostering balanced screen media use and mental health in adolescents, accentuating the need for professional screening and education to promote positive screen media use among adolescents and families. Further research requires refinement in measurement and methodology to better capture the intricate relationship between family dynamics, screen media use, and adolescent mental health.

Smartphone Ownership, Minors' Well-being, and Parental Mediation Strategies. An Analysis in the Context of Social Media Influencers

Although smartphone ownership among minors has become an important social phenomenon, its impact on children's and adolescents' well-being, as well as the mechanisms by which this might take place are not yet sufficiently well-established. To date, no research has examined the effect of smartphone ownership on the well-being of minors through the consumption of influencer-generated content, nor has it explored the effectiveness of the main prevention strategies employed by parents in this context. To fill those gaps, 800 Spanish minors (50% female) aged from 8 to 16 years old (M = 12.33, SD = 2.38) participated in a correlational study in which the ownership of electronic devices, the consumption of influencer generated content, the parasocial relationship with the influencer, and the most common parental mediation strategies were considered. The results showed a positive association between electronic device ownership and psychological discomfort, problematic usage, and imitation of dangerous behaviors. This association was mediated by the consumption of influencer-generated content and the parasocial relationship established by the minor with the influencer. Regarding preventive strategies, only active mediation was inversely related to poorer well-being indicators, however this positive effect significantly decreased when a smartphone or a similar electronic device was owned by the minor (vs. no owned). These findings contribute to the understanding of how smartphone ownership can affect the well-being of children, emphasizing the need for thoughtful consideration when deciding whether to provide smartphones to minors.

The relationships of parents' mental well-being and sociodemographic characteristics with digital parenting awareness: Structural equation model analysis

PURPOSE

This study aimed to explain the relationships between parents' mental well-being and sociodemographic characteristics with digital parenting awareness.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study used structural equation modeling. It was conducted between January and May 2023 in a province in the Mediterranean region of Turkey with 262 parents with children aged 5-11 years. Research data were collected using the Personal Information Form, the Digital Parental Awareness Scale, and the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale.

RESULTS

Parents' mental well-being and digital parenting awareness were significantly associated with the sub-dimensions of being a negative model (β = -0.313), digital negligence (β = -0.187), efficient use (β = 0.284), and protection from risks (β = 0.432; all p < 0.001). Additionally, parental mental well-being, parent's internet usage time (years), the perception that their child/children are using digital tools unnecessarily, the monthly income of the family, parent's age, and education levels significantly impact digital parenting awareness (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Parents' mental well-being was moderately and significantly associated with digital parenting awareness. Furthermore, the high number of years of internet usage by parents, having high levels of education and income, being younger, and the perception that their children use digital tools unnecessarily are positively related to digital parenting awareness.

'I tried to take my phone off my daughter, and i got hit in the face': a qualitative study of parents' challenges with adolescents' screen use and a toolbox of their tips

BACKGROUND

Concerns about adolescent screen use are often expressed but poorly understood, particularly in terms of how parents are supposed to respond in ways that balance safety, care and developing independence and autonomy. This qualitative study investigated parental perceptions and concerns about screen use of adolescents aged 13 to 17. Current strategies to manage screen use and barriers to doing so were explored, and parents were asked to outline recommended interventions for better outcomes.

METHODS

Interviews and focus groups were held with 33 adults in Auckland, Aotearoa New Zealand (mean age 48 years) who were parenting adolescents (mean age 14 years). Interviews were transcribed verbatim, then inductive analysis and interpretation by the research team distilled the key ideas and illustrative quotes. A table of recommendations for a practical 'toolbox' was developed from these in-depth conversations.

RESULTS

Parents reported extensive use of screens by their adolescents, constantly throughout the day (and night, instead of sleeping). Four areas of specific concern included: (1) addict-like behavior, (2) exposure to harmful (and inane) content, (3) living in a virtual world, and (4) negative impacts on physical, mental, and cognitive wellbeing. To manage adolescent screen use, family rules and restrictions (on time and place) were common. Some used technical control via software or accessing the adolescent's devices and/or accounts to check for inappropriate content (such as pornography). Communication about device use and self-regulation were important. Barriers to managing screen use included trying to avoid conflict with their child; difficulties with consistency or follow-through on rules; lack of technical knowledge; parental screen use that set a bad example; and device use needed for school or other purposes. Recommendations from parents are presented in a toolbox of tips and techniques they shared, and their 'wish list' for better access to practical, local, scientific information, examples of techniques that have worked for other families, tools for problematic behavior and risk (including how to begin conversations with adolescents about their concerns), and having schools and young people involved in developing interventions to build digital citizenship.

CONCLUSIONS

Rich, nuanced accounts from parents about adolescent screen use in their families and communities underpinned their practical ideas for more skillful responses to young people grappling with an addictive digital existence.

Media Parenting Scale for School-Aged Children (MEPA-20): Psychometric Properties of the Turkish Version

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Media parenting refers to the strategies and behaviors parents use to interact with their children regarding the amount, content, and context of screen use. Children's media/screen use is a significant indicator of media parenting practices. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the Turkish version of the Media Parenting Scale for School-Aged Children (MEPA-20).

METHODS

This methodological study involved 524 parents with children aged 6-10 and was conducted between October 15, 2022, and February 15, 2023. In the data analysis, the Content Validity Index, Explanatory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses, Cronbach's alpha, Test-retest reliability, Hotelling T2 test, and item-total score correlation were used. The test-retest reliability analysis of the Turkish version of MEPA-20 was performed with 30 parents after 4 weeks.

RESULTS

MEPA-20 consists of 20 items and three sub-dimensions (active, restrictive, and over-protective mediation). The MEPA-20 Turkish version and its three factors were found to indicate acceptable levels of internal consistency and reliability. The three-factor construct validity of the MEPA-20 Turkish version determined with Explanatory Factor Analyses was successfully confirmed with Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

CONCLUSION

The MEPA-20 is a valid and reliable tool for assessing the media parenting practices of parents of children aged 6-10 years in the Turkish population.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Based on the impact of media parenting practices on child and family health, nurses should raise awareness and support parents regarding children's healthy screen use.

Breastfeeding Apps: A Descriptive Report

BACKGROUND

Women are increasingly using breastfeeding apps to facilitate and organize breastfeeding; however, no study has so far focused on maternal psychopathological risk and on the quality of dyadic exchanges in this field.

AIM AND METHODS

This preliminary, descriptive study aimed at evaluating levels of psychopathological symptoms (through the SCL-90/R) and for the quality of the interactions they have with their children during feeding (through the SVIA) in mothers who use breastfeeding apps with different grades of engagement.

RESULTS

Data analyses showed that mothers with a mild use of the apps present a higher quality of dyadic interactions during feeding and lower psychopathological risk.

CONCLUSIONS

The cross-sectional and descriptive nature of this study does not allow any causal conclusions. However, results suggest that the higher the engagement and use of breastfeeding apps, the lower the quality of feeding interactions and the higher the maternal psychopathological risk.

Digital location tracking: A preliminary investigation of parents' use of digital technology to monitor their adolescent's location

The emergence of digital technologies has changed the dynamic of parent-adolescent relationships. Parents can now use digital technologies to monitor their adolescent's physical location. Yet, to date, no known research has examined the extent to which digital location tracking occurs in parent-adolescent dyads, and how tracking links to adolescent adjustment. The current research examined digital location tracking in a large sample of adolescents (N = 729; Mage = 15.03). Overall, about half of parents and adolescents reported digital location tracking. Girls and younger adolescents were more likely to be tracked, and tracking was associated with greater externalizing problems and alcohol consumption; however, these associations were not robust across multiple informants and sensitivity analyses. Positive linkages with externalizing problems and cannabis use were in part contingent on age and positive parenting, with associations emerging for older adolescents and adolescents who report lower positive parenting. Older adolescents are increasingly striving for independence and autonomy, and adolescents who perceive lower positive parenting may view digital tracking as controlling and intrusive. However, results were not robust after statistical correction. This brief report is intended to serve as a preliminary investigation into digital location tracking, and future research is needed to determine the directionality of associations. Possible consequences of parental digital tracking require careful consideration by researchers in order to provide guidance on the best practices for engaging in digital monitoring while nurturing and respecting the parent-adolescent relationship. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Does parental media mediation make a difference for adolescents? Evidence from an empirical cohort study of parent-adolescent dyads

Background and aims

Adolescents, who are undergoing brain changes, are vulnerable to many online risks in their use or overuse of digital technology. Parental media mediation (a set of practices parents use to guide children's media use and to reduce potential negative consequences of children from media) is considered an important way to help regulate and reduce adolescents' use or problematic use of digital media and protect them from online risks. However, previous studies have shown controversial results. These controversial results reflect a reproducibility crisis in psychological science due to selective reporting, selective analysis, and inadequate description of the conditions necessary to obtain results.

Methods

To address this issue and reveal the authentic effect of parental media mediation strategies, this study presented the results of a specification curve analysis of 1176 combinations indicating the longitudinal effect of parental media mediation on adolescent smartphone use or problematic use. A total of 2154 parent-adolescent dyads (adolescents' ages ranged from 9 to 18, the average age was 12.13 ± 2.20, and 817 of the adolescents were male) participated in two waves of measurements.

Results

The results showed that of the 12 parental media mediations, joint parental use for learning had the greatest effect in reducing future smartphone use or problematic use among adolescents. Overall, none of the parental media mediations had a substantial effect in reducing future smartphone use or problematic use among adolescents.

Discussion and conclusions

The ineffectiveness of parental media mediation poses a challenge for researchers, the public, and policy-makers. More exploration is needed in the search of effective parental media mediations for adolescents.

Mothers' Perceptions of Children's Screen Use During the COVID-19 Lockdown in Israel

The contemporary parenting challenge of regulating children's screen time became even more difficult during the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). The current research addresses the characteristics of this challenge and explores mothers' perceptions regarding their children's screen use, through two consecutive studies. Study 1 included 299 mothers of elementary school children, who were asked to complete questionnaires regarding their children's screen habits. Mothers were also asked about their own attitudes towards screens, as parents, and about their personal feelings of frustration and guilt. Study 2 replicated this procedure among a new sample of 283 mothers who also completed validated scales assessing their sense of parental competence and authority style. Retrospective reports of mothers indicated that, during the lockdown, entertainment use of screens increased by 73% among 4^th-6^th graders and by 108% among 1^st-3^rd graders. Educational use increased by 86% in both age groups. Mothers' guilt increased as well and was predicted by children's entertainment use (but not educational use), after accounting for demographic variables and mothers' attitudes. Other factors, such as parenting style and having at-least one child with a diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), were associated with entertainment use (regardless of the COVID-19 lockdown). Factors that were found to moderate the lockdown effect were mothers' attitudes towards screens and parental confidence. The findings are discussed in the context of parents' efforts to regulate their children's screen use.