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Masenga SK, Mweene BC, Luwaya E, Muchaili L, Chona M, Kirabo A. HIV-Host Cell Interactions. Cells 2023; 12:1351. [PMID: 37408185 DOI: 10.3390/cells12101351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) was a great milestone in the management of HIV infection. ARVs suppress viral activity in the host cell, thus minimizing injury to the cells and prolonging life. However, an effective treatment has remained elusive for four decades due to the successful immune evasion mechanisms of the virus. A thorough understanding of the molecular interaction of HIV with the host cell is essential in the development of both preventive and curative therapies for HIV infection. This review highlights several inherent mechanisms of HIV that promote its survival and propagation, such as the targeting of CD4+ lymphocytes, the downregulation of MHC class I and II, antigenic variation and an envelope complex that minimizes antibody access, and how they collaboratively render the immune system unable to mount an effective response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepiso K Masenga
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Room 536 Robinson Research Building, Nashville, TN 37232-6602, USA
| | - Bislom C Mweene
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Emmanuel Luwaya
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Lweendo Muchaili
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Makondo Chona
- HAND Research Group, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mulungushi University, Livingstone Campus, Livingstone 10101, Zambia
| | - Annet Kirabo
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Room 536 Robinson Research Building, Nashville, TN 37232-6602, USA
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2
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Targeting Human Proteins for Antiviral Drug Discovery and Repurposing Efforts: A Focus on Protein Kinases. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020568. [PMID: 36851782 PMCID: PMC9966946 DOI: 10.3390/v15020568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the great technological and medical advances in fighting viral diseases, new therapies for most of them are still lacking, and existing antivirals suffer from major limitations regarding drug resistance and a limited spectrum of activity. In fact, most approved antivirals are directly acting antiviral (DAA) drugs, which interfere with viral proteins and confer great selectivity towards their viral targets but suffer from resistance and limited spectrum. Nowadays, host-targeted antivirals (HTAs) are on the rise, in the drug discovery and development pipelines, in academia and in the pharmaceutical industry. These drugs target host proteins involved in the virus life cycle and are considered promising alternatives to DAAs due to their broader spectrum and lower potential for resistance. Herein, we discuss an important class of HTAs that modulate signal transduction pathways by targeting host kinases. Kinases are considered key enzymes that control virus-host interactions. We also provide a synopsis of the antiviral drug discovery and development pipeline detailing antiviral kinase targets, drug types, therapeutic classes for repurposed drugs, and top developing organizations. Furthermore, we detail the drug design and repurposing considerations, as well as the limitations and challenges, for kinase-targeted antivirals, including the choice of the binding sites, physicochemical properties, and drug combinations.
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3
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Wilson KM, He JJ. HIV Nef Expression Down-modulated GFAP Expression and Altered Glutamate Uptake and Release and Proliferation in Astrocytes. Aging Dis 2023; 14:152-169. [PMID: 36818564 PMCID: PMC9937695 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2022.0712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV infection of astrocytes leads to restricted gene expression and replication but abundant expression of HIV early genes Tat, Nef and Rev. A great deal of neuroHIV research has so far been focused on Tat protein, its effects on astrocytes, and its roles in neuroHIV. In the current study, we aimed to determine effects of Nef expression on astrocytes and their function. Using transfection or infection of VSVG-pseudotyped HIV viruses, we showed that Nef expression down-modulated glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. We then showed that Nef expression also led to decreased GFAP mRNA expression. The transcriptional regulation was further confirmed using a GFAP promoter-driven reporter gene assay. We performed transcription factor profiling array to compare the expression of transcription factors between Nef-intact and Nef-deficient HIV-infected cells and identified eight transcription factors with expression changes of 1.5-fold or higher: three up-regulated by Nef (Stat1, Stat5, and TFIID), and five down-regulated by Nef (AR, GAS/ISRE, HIF, Sp1, and p53). We then demonstrated that removal of the Sp1 binding sites from the GFAP promoter resulted in a much lower level of the promoter activity and reversal of Nef effects on the GFAP promoter, confirming important roles of Sp1 in the GFAP promoter activity and for Nef-induced GFAP expression. Lastly, we showed that Nef expression led to increased glutamate uptake and decreased glutamate release by astrocytes and increased astrocyte proliferation. Taken together, these results indicate that Nef leads to down-modulation of GFAP expression and alteration of glutamate metabolism in astrocytes, and astrocyte proliferation and could be an important contributor to neuroHIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M Wilson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology and Infection, School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, Chicago Medical School, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Johnny J He
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology and Infection, School of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, Rosalind Franklin University, Chicago Medical School, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
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Wakchoure P, Momin K, Khan AA. Pathogenesis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection as Revealed by Transcriptome and Interactome Data. OMICS : A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2023; 27:15-23. [PMID: 36648422 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2022.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) among patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a major global health burden and contributes to a high mortality rate due to HIV-mediated immunosuppression and subsequent susceptibility to TB. It is imperative to understand the pathogenesis of the association between HIV and TB for therapeutic innovation and preventive medicine. In the present study, we employed transcriptomic and bioinformatic analyses of differential gene expression data obtained from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) of the National Center for Biotechnology Information. The expression data of Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected macrophages and blood samples from TB patients (GSE54992, GSE52819, and GSE19435) and blood samples from HIV patients (GSE30310) were accessed for identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Data from 20 healthy subjects and 19 patients with TB and 16 healthy subjects and 16 patients with HIV were analyzed. We report here the DEGs shared by HIV and TB infection. Moreover, HIV and TB host-pathogen interaction data were collected from BIOGRID, v 4.4.210, for identifying significantly modulated genes' targets and their interactions with the host. Host targets, including PLSCR1 (phospholipid scramblase 1), STAT1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 alpha/beta), FBXO6 (F-box only protein 6), ITGAL (integrin alpha-L), and APP (amyloid beta precursor protein), are commonly modulated in both diseases. The function of these targets was screened from and reconciled with the literature to understand their role in the pathogenesis of HIV and TB. Overall, the study results suggest that these targets may potentially be important contributors to the pathogenesis of this comorbidity. Further experimental work is needed for evaluating these new observations, with a view to future therapeutic innovation for patients with HIV and TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Wakchoure
- Division of Microbiology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, India
| | - Khizra Momin
- Division of Microbiology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, India
| | - Abdul Arif Khan
- Division of Microbiology, ICMR-National AIDS Research Institute, Pune, India
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5
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Liu X, Lin L, Lv T, Lu L, Li X, Han Y, Qiu Z, Li X, Li Y, Song X, Cao W, Li T. Combined multi-omics and network pharmacology approach reveals the role of Tripterygium Wilfordii Hook F in treating HIV immunological non-responders. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 101:154103. [PMID: 35468451 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The HIV-1 infected immunological non-responders (INRs) are characterized by poor immune reconstitution after long-term treatment. Tripterygium Wilfordii Hook F (TwHF) pill is a traditional Chinese patent drug with extensive immunosuppressive effects and has been clinically proven efficacy in treating INRs. PURPOSE The therapeutic mechanism of TwHF pills in the treatment of INRs was investigated by the combined multi-omics analysis on clinical samples and network pharmacology approach. METHODS Clinically, the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) samples of TwHF-treated INRs from different time points were collected to conduct the transcriptomic and proteomic profiling. Key effector pathways of TwHF were enriched and analyzed by the ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA). Computationally, the TwHF-related compounds were obtained from traditional Chinese medicine databases, and literature search and structural prediction were performed to identify TwHF-related targets. Integrated with the INR-related targets, the 'TwHF-compounds-targets-INR' network was constructed to analyze core effector targets by centrality measurement. Experimentally, the effects of TwHF compounds on the T cells activation and expression of identified targets were evaluated with in vitro cell culture. RESULTS 33 INRs were included and treated with TwHF pills for 17 (IQR, 12-24) months. These patients experienced rapid growth in the CD4+ T cell counts and decreased T cell activation. The multi-omics analysis showed that the interferon (IFN)-signaling pathway was significantly inhibited after taking TwHF pills. The network pharmacology predicted the central role of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) in the 'TwHF-compounds-targets-INR' network. Further bioinformatic analysis predicted STAT1 would regulate over 58.8% of identified down-regulated genes. Cell experiments validated that triptolide (TPL) would serve as the major bioactivity compound of TwHF pills to inhibit the immune cell activation, the production of IFN-γ, the expression of downstream IFN-stimulated genes, and the phosphorylation of STAT1. CONCLUSION Our research is the first to systemic verify the mechanisms of TwHF in treating INRs. The IFN signaling pathway and the STAT1 would be the major effector targets of TwHF pills in treating INRs. The TPL would be the major bioactive compound to inhibit the IFN response and the phosphorylation of STAT1. Our observations suggest the basis for further application of TPL analogous in treating INRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaosheng Liu
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ling Lin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Tingxia Lv
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Lianfeng Lu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaodi Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Han
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhifeng Qiu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxia Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanling Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaojing Song
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Cao
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Taisheng Li
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Department of Infectious Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.
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6
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Xia X, Cheng A, Wang M, Ou X, Sun D, Mao S, Huang J, Yang Q, Wu Y, Chen S, Zhang S, Zhu D, Jia R, Liu M, Zhao XX, Gao Q, Tian B. Functions of Viroporins in the Viral Life Cycle and Their Regulation of Host Cell Responses. Front Immunol 2022; 13:890549. [PMID: 35720341 PMCID: PMC9202500 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.890549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viroporins are virally encoded transmembrane proteins that are essential for viral pathogenicity and can participate in various stages of the viral life cycle, thereby promoting viral proliferation. Viroporins have multifaceted effects on host cell biological functions, including altering cell membrane permeability, triggering inflammasome formation, inducing apoptosis and autophagy, and evading immune responses, thereby ensuring that the virus completes its life cycle. Viroporins are also virulence factors, and their complete or partial deletion often reduces virion release and reduces viral pathogenicity, highlighting the important role of these proteins in the viral life cycle. Thus, viroporins represent a common drug-protein target for inhibiting drugs and the development of antiviral therapies. This article reviews current studies on the functions of viroporins in the viral life cycle and their regulation of host cell responses, with the aim of improving the understanding of this growing family of viral proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Xia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Xumin Ou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Di Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Sai Mao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Juan Huang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Xin-Xin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Qun Gao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Bin Tian
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
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Preservation of lymphocyte functional fitness in perinatally-infected and treated HIV+ pediatric patients displaying sub-optimal viral control. COMMUNICATIONS MEDICINE 2022; 2. [PMID: 35434722 PMCID: PMC9012494 DOI: 10.1038/s43856-022-00085-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Host–pathogen dynamics associated with HIV infection are quite distinct in children versus adults. We interrogated the functional fitness of the lymphocyte responses in two cohorts of perinatally infected HIV+ pediatric subjects with early anti-retroviral therapy (ART) initiation but divergent patterns of virologic control. We hypothesized that sub-optimal viral control would compromise immune functional fitness.
Methods
The immune responses in the two HIV+ cohorts (n = 6 in each cohort) were benchmarked against the responses measured in age-range matched, uninfected healthy control subjects (n = 11) by utilizing tests for normality, and comparison [the Kruskal–Wallis test, and the two-tailed Mann–Whitney U test (where appropriate)]. Lymphocyte responses were examined by intra-cellular cytokine secretion, degranulation assays as well as phosflow. A subset of these data were further queried by an automated clustering algorithm. Finally, we evaluated the humoral immune responses to four childhood vaccines in all three cohorts.
Results
We demonstrate that contrary to expectations pediatric HIV+ patients with sub-optimal viral control display no significant deficits in immune functional fitness. In fact, the patients that display better virologic control lack functional Gag-specific T cell responses and compared to healthy controls they display signaling deficits and an enrichment of mitogen-stimulated CD3 negative and positive lymphocyte clusters with suppressed cytokine production.
Conclusions
These results highlight the immune resilience in HIV+ children on ART with sub-optimal viral control. With respect to HIV+ children on ART with better viral control, our data suggest that this cohort might potentially benefit from targeted interventions that might mitigate cell-mediated immune functional quiescence.
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Ezeonwumelu IJ, Garcia-Vidal E, Ballana E. JAK-STAT Pathway: A Novel Target to Tackle Viral Infections. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122379. [PMID: 34960648 PMCID: PMC8704679 DOI: 10.3390/v13122379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Modulation of the antiviral innate immune response has been proposed as a putative cellular target for the development of novel pan-viral therapeutic strategies. The Janus kinase–signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) pathway is especially relevant due to its essential role in the regulation of local and systemic inflammation in response to viral infections, being, therefore, a putative therapeutic target. Here, we review the extraordinary diversity of strategies that viruses have evolved to interfere with JAK-STAT signaling, stressing the relevance of this pathway as a putative antiviral target. Moreover, due to the recent remarkable progress on the development of novel JAK inhibitors (JAKi), the current knowledge on its efficacy against distinct viral infections is also discussed. JAKi have a proven efficacy against a broad spectrum of disorders and exhibit safety profiles comparable to biologics, therefore representing good candidates for drug repurposing strategies, including viral infections.
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9
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Pal VK, Agrawal R, Rakshit S, Shekar P, Murthy DTN, Vyakarnam A, Singh A. Hydrogen sulfide blocks HIV rebound by maintaining mitochondrial bioenergetics and redox homeostasis. eLife 2021; 10:68487. [PMID: 34792020 PMCID: PMC8660018 DOI: 10.7554/elife.68487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
A fundamental challenge in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) eradication is to understand how the virus establishes latency, maintains stable cellular reservoirs, and promotes rebound upon interruption of antiretroviral therapy (ART). Here, we discovered an unexpected role of the ubiquitous gasotransmitter hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in HIV latency and reactivation. We show that reactivation of HIV is associated with downregulation of the key H2S producing enzyme cystathionine-γ-lyase (CTH) and reduction in endogenous H2S. Genetic silencing of CTH disrupts redox homeostasis, impairs mitochondrial function, and remodels the transcriptome of latent cells to trigger HIV reactivation. Chemical complementation of CTH activity using a slow-releasing H2S donor, GYY4137, suppressed HIV reactivation and diminished virus replication. Mechanistically, GYY4137 blocked HIV reactivation by inducing the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway, inhibiting NF-κB, and recruiting the epigenetic silencer, YY1, to the HIV promoter. In latently infected CD4+ T cells from ART-suppressed human subjects, GYY4137 in combination with ART prevented viral rebound and improved mitochondrial bioenergetics. Moreover, prolonged exposure to GYY4137 exhibited no adverse influence on proviral content or CD4+ T cell subsets, indicating that diminished viral rebound is due to a loss of transcription rather than a selective loss of infected cells. In summary, this work provides mechanistic insight into H2S-mediated suppression of viral rebound and suggests exploration of H2S donors to maintain HIV in a latent form.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virender Kumar Pal
- Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Ragini Agrawal
- Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Pooja Shekar
- BMCRI, Bangalore Medical College and Research Institute, Bangalore, India
| | | | | | - Amit Singh
- Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
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10
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Gargan S, Stevenson NJ. Unravelling the Immunomodulatory Effects of Viral Ion Channels, towards the Treatment of Disease. Viruses 2021; 13:2165. [PMID: 34834972 PMCID: PMC8618147 DOI: 10.3390/v13112165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The current COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for the research community to develop a better understanding of viruses, in particular their modes of infection and replicative lifecycles, to aid in the development of novel vaccines and much needed anti-viral therapeutics. Several viruses express proteins capable of forming pores in host cellular membranes, termed "Viroporins". They are a family of small hydrophobic proteins, with at least one amphipathic domain, which characteristically form oligomeric structures with central hydrophilic domains. Consequently, they can facilitate the transport of ions through the hydrophilic core. Viroporins localise to host membranes such as the endoplasmic reticulum and regulate ion homeostasis creating a favourable environment for viral infection. Viroporins also contribute to viral immune evasion via several mechanisms. Given that viroporins are often essential for virion assembly and egress, and as their structural features tend to be evolutionarily conserved, they are attractive targets for anti-viral therapeutics. This review discusses the current knowledge of several viroporins, namely Influenza A virus (IAV) M2, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-1 Viral protein U (Vpu), Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) p7, Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-16 E5, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) Open Reading Frame (ORF)3a and Polyomavirus agnoprotein. We highlight the intricate but broad immunomodulatory effects of these viroporins and discuss the current antiviral therapies that target them; continually highlighting the need for future investigations to focus on novel therapeutics in the treatment of existing and future emergent viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siobhan Gargan
- Viral Immunology Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Nigel J. Stevenson
- Viral Immunology Group, School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, D02 R590 Dublin, Ireland;
- Viral Immunology Group, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland-Medical University of Bahrain, Manama 15503, Bahrain
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11
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Chakhtoura M, Fang M, Cubas R, O’Connor MH, Nichols CN, Richardson B, Talla A, Moir S, Cameron MJ, Tardif V, Haddad EK. Germinal Center T follicular helper (GC-Tfh) cell impairment in chronic HIV infection involves c-Maf signaling. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009732. [PMID: 34280251 PMCID: PMC8289045 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We have recently demonstrated that the function of T follicular helper (Tfh) cells from lymph nodes (LN) of HIV-infected individuals is impaired. We found that these cells were unable to provide proper help to germinal center (GC)-B cells, as observed by altered and inefficient anti-HIV antibody response and premature death of memory B cells. The underlying molecular mechanisms of this dysfunction remain poorly defined. Herein, we have used a unique transcriptional approach to identify these molecular defects. We consequently determined the transcriptional profiles of LN GC-Tfh cells following their interactions with LN GC-B cells from HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected individuals, rather than analyzing resting ex-vivo GC-Tfh cells. We observed that proliferating GC-Tfh cells from HIV-infected subjects were transcriptionally different than their HIV-uninfected counterparts, and displayed a significant downregulation of immune- and GC-Tfh-associated pathways and genes. Our results strongly demonstrated that MAF (coding for the transcription factor c-Maf) and its upstream signaling pathway mediators (IL6R and STAT3) were significantly downregulated in HIV-infected subjects, which could contribute to the impaired GC-Tfh and GC-B cell functions reported during infection. We further showed that c-Maf function was associated with the adenosine pathway and that the signaling upstream c-Maf could be partially restored by adenosine deaminase -1 (ADA-1) supplementation. Overall, we identified a novel mechanism that contributes to GC-Tfh cell impairment during HIV infection. Understanding how GC-Tfh cell function is altered in HIV is crucial and could provide critical information about the mechanisms leading to the development and maintenance of effective anti-HIV antibodies. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) remains a worldwide burden despite available treatments. The virus induces dysregulations in major immune cells and organs including lymph nodes. Germinal center T follicular helper (GC-Tfh) cells are immune cells which induce specific anti-HIV antibodies by helping GC-B cells. In chronic HIV, the interaction between these two cell types is defective, leading to modified and inefficient anti-HIV antibody responses. In this study, we examined the underlying mechanisms of this dysfunction. We observed that proliferating GC-Tfh cells from HIV-infected individuals, displayed distinctive gene expression than those from -uninfected subjects, following GC-B cell interaction. Furthermore, GC-Tfh cells from HIV patients showed a reduction in important immune-related pathway and gene expression. A number of essential GC-Tfh cell genes, such as MAF and its associated genes (IL6R and STAT3), were particularly attenuated in HIV, contributing to the impaired cells function. Moreover, we found an association between MAF function and the key enzyme adenosine deaminase-1 (ADA-1), where supplementation with ADA-1 partially restored the dysfunctional signaling in GC-Tfh cells during chronic infection. Understanding how GC-Tfh cells are altered in HIV is critical to elucidate the mechanisms leading to effective anti-HIV antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marita Chakhtoura
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases & HIV Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Mike Fang
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Services, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Rafael Cubas
- Iovance Biotherapeutics, San Carlos, California, United States of America
| | - Margaret H. O’Connor
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases & HIV Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and Genetics, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Carmen N. Nichols
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Services, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Brian Richardson
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Services, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Aarthi Talla
- Allen Institute for Immunology, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Susan Moir
- Laboratory of Immunoregulation, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Mark J. Cameron
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Services, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Virginie Tardif
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases & HIV Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Sorbonne University, INSERM, Center of Reasearch in Myology (Association Institut de Myologie) UMRS 974, AP-HP, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Immunology, DHU I2B, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France
- * E-mail: (VT); (EKH)
| | - Elias K. Haddad
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases & HIV Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail: (VT); (EKH)
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12
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Huang B, Chen H, Zheng Y. MiR-103/miR-107 inhibits enterovirus 71 replication and facilitates type I interferon response by regulating SOCS3/STAT3 pathway. Biotechnol Lett 2021; 43:1357-1369. [PMID: 33796959 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-021-03115-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Enterovirus71 (EV71), the major cause of hand, foot, and-mouth disease (HFMD), has increasingly become a public health challenge. Type I interferons (IFNs) can regulate innate and adaptive immune responses to pathogens. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play regulatory roles in host innate immune responses to viral infections. However, the roles of miR-103 and miR-107 in EV71 infection remain unclear. METHODS Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was employed to determine the expression of miR-103, miR-107, suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3), VP1, IFN-α, and IFN-β. Virus titers were measured by 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) assay. Western blot assay was conducted to detect the protein levels of VP1, IFN-α, IFN-β, SOCS3, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and phospho-STAT3 (p-STAT3). Immunofluorescence assay was used to detect the protein level of VP1. The concentrations of IFN-α and IFN-β were examined by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The interaction between SOCS3 and miR-103/miR-107 was predicted by starBase and verified by dual-luciferase reporter assay and RNA pull-down assay. RESULTS MiR-103 and miR-107 were downregulated and SOCS3 was upregulated in serum from patients with EV71 and EV71-infected cells. Overexpression of miR-103 and miR-107 repressed EV71 replication by inhibiting EV71 titers and VP1 expression. Moreover, upregulation of miR-103 and miR-107 enhanced EV71-triggered the production of type I IFNs. In addition, miR-103 and miR-107 directly targeted SOCS3, and SOCS3 upregulation reversed the effects of miR-103 and miR-107 on EV71 replication and type I IFN response. Importantly, miR-103 and miR-107 increased STAT3 phosphorylation by targeting SOCS3 after EV71 infection. CONCLUSION MiR-103 and miR-107 suppressed EV71 replication and increased the production of type I IFNs by regulating SOCS3/STAT3 pathway, which might provide a novel strategy for developing effective antiviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baizhi Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, Dongguan, China.
- Department of Pediatrics, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, No. 111 Humen Avenue, Humen Town, Dongguan City, 523900, Guangdong Province, China.
| | - Haiping Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, Dongguan, China
| | - Yanbing Zheng
- Department of Pediatrics, Binhaiwan Central Hospital of Dongguan, Dongguan, China
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13
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Xu B, Tang B, Wei J. Role of STAT1 in the resistance of HBV to IFN-α. Exp Ther Med 2021; 21:550. [PMID: 33850522 PMCID: PMC8027746 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.9982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to explore the mechanism of hepatitis B virus (HBV) resistance to interferon (IFN), and the role of signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1). HepG2.2.15 cells were stimulated with a long-term (6-24 weeks) low-dose interferon (IFN)α-2b (10-70 IU/ml), so as to construct and screen a HepG2.2.15 cell model resistant to IFNα-2b. The changes of STAT1 and other proteins in the JAK-STAT signaling pathway, before and after drug resistance, were compared. The phosphorylation of STAT1 in HepG2.2.15 cells resistant to IFNα-2b was significantly decreased, and the expression level of 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 1 was downregulated. Decreased phosphorylation of STAT1 in the JAK-STAT signaling pathway a contributor to the development of resistance to IFN-α in HBV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingfa Xu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui 230061, P.R. China
| | - Bo Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, Huainan First People's Hospital, Huainan, Anhui 232007, P.R. China
| | - Jiajia Wei
- Department of Pharmacy, The First People's Hospital of Changzhou, Changzhou, Jiangsu 213000, P.R. China
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14
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Mazewski C, Perez RE, Fish EN, Platanias LC. Type I Interferon (IFN)-Regulated Activation of Canonical and Non-Canonical Signaling Pathways. Front Immunol 2020; 11:606456. [PMID: 33329603 PMCID: PMC7719805 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.606456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
For several decades there has been accumulating evidence implicating type I interferons (IFNs) as key elements of the immune response. Therapeutic approaches incorporating different recombinant type I IFN proteins have been successfully employed to treat a diverse group of diseases with significant and positive outcomes. The biological activities of type I IFNs are consequences of signaling events occurring in the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells. Biochemical events involving JAK/STAT proteins that control transcriptional activation of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) were the first to be identified and are referred to as "canonical" signaling. Subsequent identification of JAK/STAT-independent signaling pathways, critical for ISG transcription and/or mRNA translation, are denoted as "non-canonical" or "non-classical" pathways. In this review, we summarize these signaling cascades and discuss recent developments in the field, specifically as they relate to the biological and clinical implications of engagement of both canonical and non-canonical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candice Mazewski
- Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Ricardo E. Perez
- Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Eleanor N. Fish
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network and Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Leonidas C. Platanias
- Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
- Department of Medicine, Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
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15
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Telwatte S, Morón-López S, Aran D, Kim P, Hsieh C, Joshi S, Montano M, Greene WC, Butte AJ, Wong JK, Yukl SA. Heterogeneity in HIV and cellular transcription profiles in cell line models of latent and productive infection: implications for HIV latency. Retrovirology 2019; 16:32. [PMID: 31711503 PMCID: PMC6849327 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-019-0494-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background HIV-infected cell lines are widely used to study latent HIV infection, which is considered the main barrier to HIV cure. We hypothesized that these cell lines differ from each other and from cells from HIV-infected individuals in the mechanisms underlying latency. Results To quantify the degree to which HIV expression is inhibited by blocks at different stages of HIV transcription, we employed a recently-described panel of RT-ddPCR assays to measure levels of 7 HIV transcripts (“read-through,” initiated, 5′ elongated, mid-transcribed/unspliced [Pol], distal-transcribed [Nef], polyadenylated, and multiply-sliced [Tat-Rev]) in bulk populations of latently-infected (U1, ACH-2, J-Lat) and productively-infected (8E5, activated J-Lat) cell lines. To assess single-cell variation and investigate cellular genes associated with HIV transcriptional blocks, we developed a novel multiplex qPCR panel and quantified single cell levels of 7 HIV targets and 89 cellular transcripts in latently- and productively-infected cell lines. The bulk cell HIV transcription profile differed dramatically between cell lines and cells from ART-suppressed individuals. Compared to cells from ART-suppressed individuals, latent cell lines showed lower levels of HIV transcriptional initiation and higher levels of polyadenylation and splicing. ACH-2 and J-Lat cells showed different forms of transcriptional interference, while U1 cells showed a block to elongation. Single-cell studies revealed marked variation between/within cell lines in expression of HIV transcripts, T cell phenotypic markers, antiviral factors, and genes implicated in latency. Expression of multiply-spliced HIV Tat-Rev was associated with expression of cellular genes involved in activation, tissue retention, T cell transcription, and apoptosis/survival. Conclusions HIV-infected cell lines differ from each other and from cells from ART-treated individuals in the mechanisms governing latent HIV infection. These differences in viral and cellular gene expression must be considered when gauging the suitability of a given cell line for future research on HIV. At the same time, some features were shared across cell lines, such as low expression of antiviral defense genes and a relationship between productive infection and genes involved in survival. These features may contribute to HIV latency or persistence in vivo, and deserve further study using novel single cell assays such as those described in this manuscript.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushama Telwatte
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sara Morón-López
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Dvir Aran
- Bakar Computational Health Sciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Peggy Kim
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Christine Hsieh
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sunil Joshi
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Mauricio Montano
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Warner C Greene
- University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.,Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Atul J Butte
- Bakar Computational Health Sciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Joseph K Wong
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Steven A Yukl
- San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA. .,University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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16
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He B, Tran JT, Sanchez DJ. Manipulation of Type I Interferon Signaling by HIV and AIDS-Associated Viruses. J Immunol Res 2019; 2019:8685312. [PMID: 31089479 PMCID: PMC6476103 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8685312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Type I Interferons were first described for their profound antiviral abilities in cell culture and animal models, and later, they were translated into potent antiviral therapeutics. However, as additional studies into the function of Type I Interferons progressed, it was also seen that pathogenic viruses have coevolved to encode potent mechanisms allowing them to evade or suppress the impact of Type I Interferons on their replication. For chronic viral infections, such as HIV and many of the AIDS-associated viruses, including HTLV, HCV, KSHV, and EBV, the clinical efficacy of Type I Interferons is limited by these mechanisms. Here, we review some of the ways that HIV and AIDS-associated viruses thrive in Type I Interferon-rich environments via mechanisms that block the function of this important antiviral cytokine. Overall, a better understanding of these mechanisms creates avenues to better understand the innate immune response to these viruses as well as plan the development of antivirals that would allow the natural antiviral effect of Type I Interferons to manifest during these infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buyuan He
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona 91766, California, USA
| | - James T. Tran
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona 91766, California, USA
| | - David Jesse Sanchez
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Department, College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona 91766, California, USA
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