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Hirschfeld LR, Risacher SL, Nho K, Saykin AJ. Myelin repair in Alzheimer's disease: a review of biological pathways and potential therapeutics. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:47. [PMID: 36284351 PMCID: PMC9598036 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00321-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This literature review investigates the significant overlap between myelin-repair signaling pathways and pathways known to contribute to hallmark pathologies of Alzheimer's disease (AD). We discuss previously investigated therapeutic targets of amyloid, tau, and ApoE, as well as other potential therapeutic targets that have been empirically shown to contribute to both remyelination and progression of AD. Current evidence shows that there are multiple AD-relevant pathways which overlap significantly with remyelination and myelin repair through the encouragement of oligodendrocyte proliferation, maturation, and myelin production. There is a present need for a single, cohesive model of myelin homeostasis in AD. While determining a causative pathway is beyond the scope of this review, it may be possible to investigate the pathological overlap of myelin repair and AD through therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Rose Hirschfeld
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
| | - Shannon L Risacher
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Kwangsik Nho
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Andrew J Saykin
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
- Indiana Alzheimer's Disease Research Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
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2
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Dermitzakis I, Manthou ME, Meditskou S, Miliaras D, Kesidou E, Boziki M, Petratos S, Grigoriadis N, Theotokis P. Developmental Cues and Molecular Drivers in Myelinogenesis: Revisiting Early Life to Re-Evaluate the Integrity of CNS Myelin. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:3208-3237. [PMID: 35877446 PMCID: PMC9324160 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44070222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) coordinates its communication through saltatory conduction, facilitated by myelin-forming oligodendrocytes (OLs). Despite the fact that neurogenesis from stem cell niches has caught the majority of attention in recent years, oligodendrogenesis and, more specifically, the molecular underpinnings behind OL-dependent myelinogenesis, remain largely unknown. In this comprehensive review, we determine the developmental cues and molecular drivers which regulate normal myelination both at the prenatal and postnatal periods. We have indexed the individual stages of myelinogenesis sequentially; from the initiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells, including migration and proliferation, to first contact with the axon that enlists positive and negative regulators for myelination, until the ultimate maintenance of the axon ensheathment and myelin growth. Here, we highlight multiple developmental pathways that are key to successful myelin formation and define the molecular pathways that can potentially be targets for pharmacological interventions in a variety of neurological disorders that exhibit demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iasonas Dermitzakis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Maria Eleni Manthou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Soultana Meditskou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Dimosthenis Miliaras
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
| | - Evangelia Kesidou
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Marina Boziki
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Steven Petratos
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Prahran, VIC 3004, Australia;
| | - Nikolaos Grigoriadis
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
| | - Paschalis Theotokis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (I.D.); (M.E.M.); (S.M.); (D.M.)
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece; (E.K.); (M.B.); (N.G.)
- Correspondence:
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3
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Kihara Y, Zhu Y, Jonnalagadda D, Romanow W, Palmer C, Siddoway B, Rivera R, Dutta R, Trapp BD, Chun J. Single-Nucleus RNA-seq of Normal-Appearing Brain Regions in Relapsing-Remitting vs. Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: Implications for the Efficacy of Fingolimod. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:918041. [PMID: 35783097 PMCID: PMC9247150 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.918041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated demyelinating disease that alters central nervous system (CNS) functions. Relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) is the most common form, which can transform into secondary-progressive MS (SPMS) that is associated with progressive neurodegeneration. Single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-seq) of MS lesions identified disease-related transcriptomic alterations; however, their relationship to non-lesioned MS brain regions has not been reported and which could identify prodromal or other disease susceptibility signatures. Here, snRNA-seq was used to generate high-quality RRMS vs. SPMS datasets of 33,197 nuclei from 8 normal-appearing MS brains, which revealed divergent cell type-specific changes. Notably, SPMS brains downregulated astrocytic sphingosine kinases (SPHK1/2) - the enzymes required to phosphorylate and activate the MS drug, fingolimod. This reduction was modeled with astrocyte-specific Sphk1/2 null mice in which fingolimod lost activity, supporting functionality of observed transcriptomic changes. These data provide an initial resource for studies of single cells from non-lesioned RRMS and SPMS brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyuki Kihara
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Yunjiao Zhu
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Deepa Jonnalagadda
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - William Romanow
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Carter Palmer
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
- Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Benjamin Siddoway
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Richard Rivera
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Ranjan Dutta
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Bruce D. Trapp
- Department of Neurosciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Jerold Chun
- Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Wang S, Wang Y, Zou S. A Glance at the Molecules That Regulate Oligodendrocyte Myelination. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:2194-2216. [PMID: 35678678 PMCID: PMC9164040 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44050149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte (OL) myelination is a critical process for the neuronal axon function in the central nervous system. After demyelination occurs because of pathophysiology, remyelination makes repairs similar to myelination. Proliferation and differentiation are the two main stages in OL myelination, and most factors commonly play converse roles in these two stages, except for a few factors and signaling pathways, such as OLIG2 (Oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2). Moreover, some OL maturation gene mutations induce hypomyelination or hypermyelination without an obvious function in proliferation and differentiation. Herein, three types of factors regulating myelination are reviewed in sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunqi Wang
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
| | - Yingxing Wang
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
| | - Suqi Zou
- Institute of Life Science & School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; (S.W.); (Y.W.)
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China
- Correspondence:
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Xiong Y, Wintermark P. The Role of Sildenafil in Treating Brain Injuries in Adults and Neonates. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:879649. [PMID: 35620219 PMCID: PMC9127063 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.879649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Sildenafil is a recognized treatment for patients suffering from erectile dysfunction and pulmonary hypertension. However, new evidence suggests that it may have a neuroprotective and a neurorestorative role in the central nervous system of both adults and neonates. Phosphodiesterase type 5-the target of sildenafil-is distributed in many cells throughout the body, including neurons and glial cells. This study is a comprehensive review of the demonstrated effects of sildenafil on the brain with respect to its function, extent of injury, neurons, neuroinflammation, myelination, and cerebral vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xiong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Pia Wintermark
- Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Montreal Children’s Hospital, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Ainatzoglou A, Stamoula E, Dardalas I, Siafis S, Papazisis G. The Effects of PDE Inhibitors on Multiple Sclerosis: a Review of in vitro and in vivo Models. Curr Pharm Des 2021; 27:2387-2397. [PMID: 33655851 DOI: 10.2174/1381612827666210303142356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory and immune-mediated disease, whose current therapeutic means are mostly effective in the relapsing-remitting form of MS, where inflammation is still prominent, but fall short of preventing long term impairment. However, apart from inflammationmediated demyelination, autoimmune mechanisms play a major role in MS pathophysiology, constituting a promising pharmacological target. Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors have been approved for clinical use in psoriasis and have undergone trials suggesting their neuroprotective effects, rendering them eligible as an option for accessory MS therapy. OBJECTIVE In this review, we discuss the potential role of PDE inhibitors as a complementary MS therapy. METHODS We conducted a literature search through which we screened and comparatively assessed papers on the effects of PDE inhibitor use, both in vitro and in animal models of MS, taking into account a number of inclusion and exclusion criteria. RESULTS In vitro studies indicated that PDE inhibitors promote remyelination and axonal sustenance, while curbing inflammatory cell infiltration, hindering oligodendrocyte and neuronal loss and suppressing cytokine production. In vivo studies underlined that these agents alleviate symptoms and reduce disease scores in MS animal models. CONCLUSION PDE inhibitors proved to be effective in addressing various aspects of MS pathogenesis both in vitro and in vivo models. Given the latest clinical trials proving that the PDE4 inhibitor Ibudilast exerts neuroprotective effects in patients with progressive MS, research on this field should be intensified and selective PDE4 inhibitors with enhanced safety features should be seriously considered as prospective complementary MS therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Ainatzoglou
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eleni Stamoula
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ioannis Dardalas
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Spyridon Siafis
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Georgios Papazisis
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Zhang Z, Zhou H, Zhou J. Heterogeneity and Proliferative and Differential Regulators of NG2-glia in Physiological and Pathological States. Curr Med Chem 2021; 27:6384-6406. [PMID: 31333083 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190717112944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
NG2-glia, also called Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells (OPCs), account for approximately 5%-10% of the cells in the developing and adult brain and constitute the fifth major cell population in the central nervous system. NG2-glia express receptors and ion channels involved in rapid modulation of neuronal activities and signaling with neuronal synapses, which have functional significance in both physiological and pathological states. NG2-glia participate in quick signaling with peripheral neurons via direct synaptic touches in the developing and mature central nervous system. These distinctive glia perform the unique function of proliferating and differentiating into oligodendrocytes in the early developing brain, which is critical for axon myelin formation. In response to injury, NG2-glia can proliferate, migrate to the lesions, and differentiate into oligodendrocytes to form new myelin sheaths, which wrap around damaged axons and result in functional recovery. The capacity of NG2-glia to regulate their behavior and dynamics in response to neuronal activity and disease indicate their critical role in myelin preservation and remodeling in the physiological state and in repair in the pathological state. In this review, we provide a detailed summary of the characteristics of NG2-glia, including their heterogeneity, the regulators of their proliferation, and the modulators of their differentiation into oligodendrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuo Zhang
- National Drug Clinical Trial Institution, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Hongli Zhou
- National Drug Clinical Trial Institution, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400037, China
| | - Jiyin Zhou
- National Drug Clinical Trial Institution, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400037, China
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Wang LJ, Li XX, Hou J, Song XH, Xie WH, Shen L. Integrated Analyses of Mouse Stem Cell Transcriptomes Provide Clues for Stem Cell Maintenance and Transdifferentiation. Front Genet 2020; 11:563798. [PMID: 33101382 PMCID: PMC7500244 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.563798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In vivo cell fate reprogramming has emerged as a new method for understanding cell plasticity and as potential treatment for tissue regeneration. Highly efficient and precise reprogramming requires fully understanding of the transcriptomes which function within different cell types. Here, we adopt weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) to explore the molecular mechanisms of self-renewal in several well-known stem cell types, including embryonic stem cells (ESC), primordial germ cells (PGC), spermatogonia stem cells (SSC), neural stem cells (NSC), mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), and hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). We identified 37 core genes that were up-regulated in all of the stem cell types examined, as well as stem cell correlated gene co-expression networks. The validation of the co-expression genes revealed a continued protein-protein interaction network that included 823 nodes and 3113 edges. Based on the topology, we identified six densely connected regions within the continued protein-protein interaction network. The SSC specific genes Itgam, Cxcr6, and Agtr2 bridged four densely connected regions that consisted primarily of HSC-, NSC-, and MSC-correlated genes. The expression levels of identified stem cell related transcription factors were confirmed consistent with bioinformatics prediction in ESCs and NSCs by qPCR. Exploring the mechanisms underlying adult stem cell self-renewal will aid in the understanding of stem cell pool maintenance and will promote more accurate and efficient strategies for tissue regeneration and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Juan Wang
- Zibo Key Laboratory of New Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatics Engineering and Technique, Institute of Biomedical Research, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Xiao-Xiao Li
- Zibo Key Laboratory of New Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatics Engineering and Technique, Institute of Biomedical Research, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Jie Hou
- School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Xin-Hua Song
- School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Wen-Hai Xie
- Zibo Key Laboratory of New Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatics Engineering and Technique, Institute of Biomedical Research, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Liang Shen
- Zibo Key Laboratory of New Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Shandong Provincial Research Center for Bioinformatics Engineering and Technique, Institute of Biomedical Research, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,School of Life Sciences, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
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9
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Schepers M, Tiane A, Paes D, Sanchez S, Rombaut B, Piccart E, Rutten BPF, Brône B, Hellings N, Prickaerts J, Vanmierlo T. Targeting Phosphodiesterases-Towards a Tailor-Made Approach in Multiple Sclerosis Treatment. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1727. [PMID: 31396231 PMCID: PMC6667646 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by heterogeneous clinical symptoms including gradual muscle weakness, fatigue, and cognitive impairment. The disease course of MS can be classified into a relapsing-remitting (RR) phase defined by periods of neurological disabilities, and a progressive phase where neurological decline is persistent. Pathologically, MS is defined by a destructive immunological and neuro-degenerative interplay. Current treatments largely target the inflammatory processes and slow disease progression at best. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop next-generation therapeutic strategies that target both neuroinflammatory and degenerative processes. It has been shown that elevating second messengers (cAMP and cGMP) is important for controlling inflammatory damage and inducing CNS repair. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) have been studied extensively in a wide range of disorders as they breakdown these second messengers, rendering them crucial regulators. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of PDE inhibition in limiting pathological inflammation and stimulating regenerative processes in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Schepers
- Department of Neuroimmunology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium.,Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Assia Tiane
- Department of Neuroimmunology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium.,Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Dean Paes
- Department of Neuroimmunology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium.,Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Selien Sanchez
- Department of Morphology, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Ben Rombaut
- Department of Physiology, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Elisabeth Piccart
- Department of Neuroimmunology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium.,Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Bart P F Rutten
- Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Bert Brône
- Department of Physiology, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Niels Hellings
- Department of Neuroimmunology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Jos Prickaerts
- Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Tim Vanmierlo
- Department of Neuroimmunology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Institute, Hasselt University, Hasselt, Belgium.,Department Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, European Graduate School of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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