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Wray S, Arrowsmith S. Uterine Excitability and Ion Channels and Their Changes with Gestation and Hormonal Environment. Annu Rev Physiol 2020; 83:331-357. [PMID: 33158376 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-physiol-032420-035509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We address advances in the understanding of myometrial physiology, focusing on excitation and the effects of gestation on ion channels and their relevance to labor. This review moves through pioneering studies to exciting new findings. We begin with the myometrium and its myocytes and describe how excitation might initiate and spread in this myogenic smooth muscle. We then review each of the ion channels in the myometrium: L- and T-type Ca2+ channels, KATP (Kir6) channels, voltage-dependent K channels (Kv4, Kv7, and Kv11), twin-pore domain K channels (TASK, TREK), inward rectifier Kir7.1, Ca2+-activated K+ channels with large (KCNMA1, Slo1), small (KCNN1-3), and intermediate (KCNN4) conductance, Na-activated K channels (Slo2), voltage-gated (SCN) Na+ and Na+ leak channels, nonselective (NALCN) channels, the Na K-ATPase, and hyperpolarization-activated cation channels. We finish by assessing how three key hormones- oxytocin, estrogen, and progesterone-modulate and integrate excitability throughout gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Wray
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, United Kingdom;
| | - Sarah Arrowsmith
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, United Kingdom;
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Amazu C, Ma X, Henkes C, Ferreira JJ, Santi CM, England SK. Progesterone and estrogen regulate NALCN expression in human myometrial smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2020; 318:E441-E452. [PMID: 31935111 PMCID: PMC7191408 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00320.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
During pregnancy, the uterus transitions from a quiescent state to an excitable, highly contractile state to deliver the fetus. Two important contributors essential for this transition are hormones and ion channels, both of which modulate myometrial smooth muscle cell (MSMC) excitability. Recently, the sodium (Na+) leak channel, nonselective (NALCN), was shown to contribute to a Na+ leak current in human MSMCs, and mice lacking NALCN in the uterus had dysfunctional labor. Microarray data suggested that the proquiescent hormone progesterone (P4) and the procontractile hormone estrogen (E2) regulated this channel. Here, we sought to determine whether P4 and E2 directly regulate NALCN. In human MSMCs, we found that NALCN mRNA expression decreased by 2.3-fold in the presence of E2 and increased by 5.6-fold in the presence of P4. Similarly, E2 treatment decreased, and P4 treatment restored NALCN protein expression. Additionally, E2 significantly inhibited, and P4 significantly enhanced an NALCN-dependent leak current in MSMCs. Finally, we identified estrogen response and progesterone response elements (EREs and PREs) in the NALCN promoter. With the use of luciferase assays, we showed that the PREs, but not the ERE, contributed to regulation of NALCN expression. Our findings reveal a new mechanism by which NALCN is regulated in the myometrium and suggest a novel role for NALCN in pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinwendu Amazu
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Xiaofeng Ma
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Clara Henkes
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Juan J Ferreira
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Celia M Santi
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Sarah K England
- Department of Obstetrics Gynecology, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
- Center for Reproductive Health Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
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Hu M, Zhang Y, Guo X, Jia W, Liu G, Zhang J, Li J, Cui P, Sferruzzi-Perri AN, Han Y, Wu X, Ma H, Brännström M, Shao LR, Billig H. Hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance induce gravid uterine defects in association with mitochondrial dysfunction and aberrant reactive oxygen species production. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2019; 316:E794-E809. [PMID: 30860876 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00359.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are at increased risk of miscarriage, which often accompanies the hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance seen in these patients. However, neither the combinatorial interaction between these two PCOS-related etiological factors nor the mechanisms of their actions in the uterus during pregnancy are well understood. We hypothesized that hyperandrogensim and insulin resistance exert a causative role in miscarriage by inducing defects in uterine function that are accompanied by mitochondrial-mediated oxidative stress, inflammation, and perturbed gene expression. Here, we tested this hypothesis by studying the metabolic, endocrine, and uterine abnormalities in pregnant rats after exposure to daily injection of 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT; 1.66 mg·kg body wt-1·day-1) and/or insulin (6.0 IU/day) from gestational day 7.5 to 13.5. We showed that whereas DHT-exposed and insulin-exposed pregnant rats presented impaired insulin sensitivity, DHT + insulin-exposed pregnant rats exhibited hyperandrogenism and peripheral insulin resistance, which mirrors pregnant PCOS patients. Compared with controls, hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance in the dam were associated with alterations in uterine morphology and aberrant expression of genes responsible for decidualization (Prl8a2, Fxyd2, and Mt1g), placentation (Fcgr3 and Tpbpa), angiogenesis (Flt1, Angpt1, Angpt2, Ho1, Ccl2, Ccl5, Cxcl9, and Cxcl10) and insulin signaling (Akt, Gsk3, and Gluts). Moreover, we observed changes in uterine mitochondrial function and homeostasis (i.e., mitochondrial DNA copy number and the expression of genes responsible for mitochondrial fusion, fission, biogenesis, and mitophagy) and suppression of both oxidative and antioxidative defenses (i.e., reactive oxygen species, Nrf2 signaling, and interactive networks of antioxidative stress responses) in response to the hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance. These findings demonstrate that hyperandrogenism and insulin resistance induce mitochondria-mediated damage and a resulting imbalance between oxidative and antioxidative stress responses in the gravid uterus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Hu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University , Guangzhou , China
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
| | - Yuehui Zhang
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Key Laboratory and Unit of Infertility in Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Xiaozhu Guo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Key Laboratory and Unit of Infertility in Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Wenyan Jia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Key Laboratory and Unit of Infertility in Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Guoqi Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Key Laboratory and Unit of Infertility in Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Jiao Zhang
- Department of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Second Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University , Guangzhou , China
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
| | - Peng Cui
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
| | - Amanda Nancy Sferruzzi-Perri
- Centre for Trophoblast Research, Department of Physiology, Development, and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge , Cambridge , United Kingdom
| | - Yanhua Han
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Key Laboratory and Unit of Infertility in Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Xiaoke Wu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Key Laboratory and Unit of Infertility in Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine , Harbin , China
| | - Hongxia Ma
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University , Guangzhou , China
| | - Mats Brännström
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
| | - Linus R Shao
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
| | - Håkan Billig
- Department of Physiology/Endocrinology, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg , Gothenburg , Sweden
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The Myometrium: From Excitation to Contractions and Labour. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1124:233-263. [PMID: 31183830 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-5895-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
Abstract
We start by describing the functions of the uterus, its structure, both gross and fine, innervation and blood supply. It is interesting to note the diversity of the female's reproductive tract between species and to remember it when working with different animal models. Myocytes are the overwhelming cell type of the uterus (>95%) and our focus. Their function is to contract, and they have an intrinsic pacemaker and rhythmicity, which is modified by hormones, stretch, paracrine factors and the extracellular environment. We discuss evidence or not for pacemaker cells in the uterus. We also describe the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in some detail, as it is relevant to calcium signalling and excitability. Ion channels, including store-operated ones, their contributions to excitability and action potentials, are covered. The main pathway to excitation is from depolarisation opening voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. Much of what happens downstream of excitability is common to other smooth muscles, with force depending upon the balance of myosin light kinase and phosphatase. Mechanisms of maintaining Ca2+ balance within the myocytes are discussed. Metabolism, and how it is intertwined with activity, blood flow and pH, is covered. Growth of the myometrium and changes in contractile proteins with pregnancy and parturition are also detailed. We finish with a description of uterine activity and why it is important, covering progression to labour as well as preterm and dysfunctional labours. We conclude by highlighting progress made and where further efforts are required.
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Floyd RV, Mobasheri A, Wray S. Gestation changes sodium pump isoform expression, leading to changes in ouabain sensitivity, contractility, and intracellular calcium in rat uterus. Physiol Rep 2018; 5. [PMID: 29208689 PMCID: PMC5727280 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Developmental and tissue‐specific differences in isoforms allow Na+, K+‐ATPase function to be tightly regulated, as they control sensitivity to ions and inhibitors. Uterine contraction relies on the activity of the Na+, K+ATPase, which creates ionic gradients that drive excitation‐contraction coupling. It is unknown whether Na+, K+ATPase isoforms are regulated throughout pregnancy or whether they have a direct role in modulating uterine contractility. We hypothesized that gestation‐dependent differential expression of isoforms would affect contractile responses to Na+, K+ATPase α subunit inhibition with ouabain. Our aims were therefore: (1) to determine the gestation‐dependent expression of mRNA transcripts, protein abundance and tissue distribution of Na+, K+ATPase isoforms in myometrium; (2) to investigate the functional effects of differential isoform expression via ouabain sensitivity; and (3) if changes in contractile responses can be explained by changes in intracellular [Ca2+]. Changes in abundance and distribution of the Na+, K+ATPase α, β and FXYD1 and 2 isoforms, were studied in rat uterus from nonpregnant, and early, mid‐, and term gestation. All α, β subunit isoforms (1,2,3) and FXYD1 were detected but FXYD2 was absent. The α1 and β1 isoforms were unchanged throughout pregnancy, whereas α2 and α3 significant decreased at term while β2 and FXYD1 significantly increased from mid‐term onwards. These changes in expression correlated with increased functional sensitivity to ouabain, and parallel changes in intracellular Ca2+, measured with Indo‐1. In conclusion, gestation induces specific regulatory changes in expression of Na+, K+ATPase isoforms in the uterus which influence contractility and may be related to the physiological requirements for successful pregnancy and delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel V Floyd
- The Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Ali Mobasheri
- Department of Veterinary Preclinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Wray
- The Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The sodium and potassium gradients across the plasma membrane are used by animal cells for numerous processes, and the range of demands requires that the responsible ion pump, the Na,K-ATPase, can be fine-tuned to the different cellular needs. Therefore, several isoforms are expressed of each of the three subunits that make a Na,K-ATPase, the alpha, beta and FXYD subunits. This review summarizes the various roles and expression patterns of the Na,K-ATPase subunit isoforms and maps the sequence variations to compare the differences structurally. Mutations in the Na,K-ATPase genes encoding alpha subunit isoforms have severe physiological consequences, causing very distinct, often neurological diseases. The differences in the pathophysiological effects of mutations further underline how the kinetic parameters, regulation and proteomic interactions of the Na,K-ATPase isoforms are optimized for the individual cellular needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Clausen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
| | - Florian Hilbers
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
| | - Hanne Poulsen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
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Springer CS, Li X, Tudorica LA, Oh KY, Roy N, Chui SYC, Naik AM, Holtorf ML, Afzal A, Rooney WD, Huang W. Intratumor mapping of intracellular water lifetime: metabolic images of breast cancer? NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2014; 27:760-73. [PMID: 24798066 PMCID: PMC4174415 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Shutter-speed pharmacokinetic analysis of dynamic-contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI data allows evaluation of equilibrium inter-compartmental water interchange kinetics. The process measured here - transcytolemmal water exchange - is characterized by the mean intracellular water molecule lifetime (τi). The τi biomarker is a true intensive property not accessible by any formulation of the tracer pharmacokinetic paradigm, which inherently assumes it is effectively zero when applied to DCE-MRI. We present population-averaged in vivo human breast whole tumor τi changes induced by therapy, along with those of other pharmacokinetic parameters. In responding patients, the DCE parameters change significantly after only one neoadjuvant chemotherapy cycle: while K(trans) (measuring mostly contrast agent (CA) extravasation) and kep (CA intravasation rate constant) decrease, τi increases. However, high-resolution, (1 mm)(2), parametric maps exhibit significant intratumor heterogeneity, which is lost by averaging. A typical 400 ms τi value means a trans-membrane water cycling flux of 10(13) H2O molecules s(-1)/cell for a 12 µm diameter cell. Analyses of intratumor variations (and therapy-induced changes) of τi in combination with concomitant changes of ve (extracellular volume fraction) indicate that the former are dominated by alterations of the equilibrium cell membrane water permeability coefficient, PW, not of cell size. These can be interpreted in light of literature results showing that τi changes are dominated by a PW (active) component that reciprocally reflects the membrane driving P-type ATPase ion pump turnover. For mammalian cells, this is the Na(+), K(+)-ATPase pump. These results promise the potential to discriminate metabolic and microenvironmental states of regions within tumors in vivo, and their changes with therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles S Springer
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- *Correspondence to: C. S. Springer, Jr, Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA. E-mail:
| | - Xin Li
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Luminita A Tudorica
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Karen Y Oh
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Nicole Roy
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Stephen Y-C Chui
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Arpana M Naik
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Megan L Holtorf
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Clinical Trials Office, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Aneela Afzal
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - William D Rooney
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
| | - Wei Huang
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
- Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science UniversityPortland, OR, USA
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Aslanidi O, Atia J, Benson A, van den Berg H, Blanks A, Choi C, Gilbert S, Goryanin I, Hayes-Gill B, Holden A, Li P, Norman J, Shmygol A, Simpson N, Taggart M, Tong W, Zhang H. Towards a computational reconstruction of the electrodynamics of premature and full term human labour. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 107:183-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2011.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Tong WC, Choi CY, Karche S, Holden AV, Zhang H, Taggart MJ. A computational model of the ionic currents, Ca2+ dynamics and action potentials underlying contraction of isolated uterine smooth muscle. PLoS One 2011; 6:e18685. [PMID: 21559514 PMCID: PMC3084699 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0018685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Uterine contractions during labor are discretely regulated by rhythmic action potentials (AP) of varying duration and form that serve to determine calcium-dependent force production. We have employed a computational biology approach to develop a fuller understanding of the complexity of excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling of uterine smooth muscle cells (USMC). Our overall aim is to establish a mathematical platform of sufficient biophysical detail to quantitatively describe known uterine E-C coupling parameters and thereby inform future empirical investigations of physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms governing normal and dysfunctional labors. From published and unpublished data we construct mathematical models for fourteen ionic currents of USMCs: currents (L- and T-type), current, an hyperpolarization-activated current, three voltage-gated currents, two -activated current, -activated current, non-specific cation current, - exchanger, - pump and background current. The magnitudes and kinetics of each current system in a spindle shaped single cell with a specified surface area∶volume ratio is described by differential equations, in terms of maximal conductances, electrochemical gradient, voltage-dependent activation/inactivation gating variables and temporal changes in intracellular computed from known fluxes. These quantifications are validated by the reconstruction of the individual experimental ionic currents obtained under voltage-clamp. Phasic contraction is modeled in relation to the time constant of changing . This integrated model is validated by its reconstruction of the different USMC AP configurations (spikes, plateau and bursts of spikes), the change from bursting to plateau type AP produced by estradiol and of simultaneous experimental recordings of spontaneous AP, and phasic force. In summary, our advanced mathematical model provides a powerful tool to investigate the physiological ionic mechanisms underlying the genesis of uterine electrical E-C coupling of labor and parturition. This will furnish the evolution of descriptive and predictive quantitative models of myometrial electrogenesis at the whole cell and tissue levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Chiu Tong
- Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, St. Mary's Hospital, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Cecilia Y. Choi
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Sanjay Karche
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Arun V. Holden
- Institute of Membrane and System Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Henggui Zhang
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (HZ); (MT)
| | - Michael J. Taggart
- Institute of Cellular Medicine, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, St. Mary's Hospital, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (HZ); (MT)
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