Elevated cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity, a major determinant of the atherogenic dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in South Asians

Disentangling Dual Threats: Premature Coronary Artery Disease and Early-Onset Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in South Asians

South Asian individuals (SAs) face heightened risks of premature coronary artery disease (CAD) and early-onset type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), with grave health, societal, and economic implications due to the region's dense population. Both conditions, influenced by cardiometabolic risk factors such as insulin resistance, hypertension, and central adiposity, manifest earlier and with unique thresholds in SAs. Epidemiological, demographic, nutritional, environmental, sociocultural, and economic transitions in SA have exacerbated the twin epidemic. The coupling of premature CAD and T2DM arises from increased obesity due to limited adipose storage, early-life undernutrition, distinct fat thresholds, reduced muscle mass, and a predisposition for hepatic fat accumulation from certain dietary choices cumulatively precipitating a decline in insulin sensitivity. As T2DM ensues, the β-cell adaptive responses are suboptimal, precipitating a transition from compensatory hyperinsulinemia to β-cell decompensation, underscoring a reduced functional β-cell reserve in SAs. This review delves into the interplay of these mechanisms and highlights a prediabetes endotype tied to elevated vascular risk. Deciphering these mechanistic interconnections promises to refine stratification paradigms, surpassing extant risk-prediction strategies.

Variants in the CETP gene affect levels of HDL cholesterol by reducing the amount, and not the specific lipid transfer activity, of secreted CETP

BACKGROUND

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) transfers cholesteryl esters in plasma from high density lipoprotein (HDL) to very low density lipoprotein and low density lipoprotein. Loss-of-function variants in the CETP gene cause elevated levels of HDL cholesterol. In this study, we have determined the functional consequences of 24 missense variants in the CETP gene. The 24 missense variants studied were the ones reported in the Human Gene Mutation Database and in the literature to affect HDL cholesterol levels, as well as two novel variants identified at the Unit for Cardiac and Cardiovascular Genetics, Oslo University Hospital in subjects with hyperalphalipoproteinemia.

METHODS

HEK293 cells were transiently transfected with mutant CETP plasmids. The amounts of CETP protein in lysates and media were determined by Western blot analysis, and the lipid transfer activities of the CETP variants were determined by a fluorescence-based assay.

RESULTS

Four of the CETP variants were not secreted. Five of the variants were secreted less than 15% compared to the WT-CETP, while the other 15 variants were secreted in varying amounts. There was a linear relationship between the levels of secreted protein and the lipid transfer activities (r = 0.96, p<0.001). Thus, the secreted variants had similar specific lipid transfer activities.

CONCLUSION

The effect of the 24 missense variants in the CETP gene on the lipid transfer activity was mediated predominantly by their impact on the secretion of the CETP protein. The four variants that prevented CETP secretion cause autosomal dominant hyperalphalipoproteinemia. The five variants that markedly reduced secretion of the respective variants cause mild hyperalphalipoproteinemia. The majority of the remaining 15 variants had minor effects on the secretion of CETP, and are considered neutral genetic variants.

Lipoprotein Insulin Resistance Index: A Simple, Accurate Method for Assessing Insulin Resistance in South Asians

Context

Identification of insulin resistance (IR) in South Asians, who are at a higher risk for type 2 diabetes, is important. Lack of standardization of insulin assays limits the clinical use of insulin-based surrogate indices. The lipoprotein insulin resistance index (LP-IR), a metabolomic marker, reflects the lipoprotein abnormalities observed in IR. The reliability of the LP-IR index in South Asians is unknown.

Objective

We evaluated the predictive accuracy of LP-IR compared with other IR surrogate indices in South Asians.

Methods

In a cross-sectional study (n = 55), we used calibration model analysis to assess the ability of the LP-IR score and other simple surrogate indices (Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance, Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index, Adipose insulin resistance index, and Matsuda Index) to predict insulin sensitivity (S_I) derived from the reference frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test. LP-IR index was derived from lipoprotein particle concentrations and sizes measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Predictive accuracy was determined by root mean squared error (RMSE) of prediction and leave-one-out cross-validation type RMSE of prediction (CVPE). The optimal cut-off of the LP-IR index was determined by the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) and the Youden index.

Results

The simple surrogate indices showed moderate correlations with S_I (r = 0.53-0.69, P < .0001). CVPE and RMSE were not different in any of the surrogate indices when compared with LP-IR. The AUROC was 0.77 (95% CI 0.64-0.89). The optimal cut-off for IR in South Asians was LP-IR >48 (sensitivity: 75%, specificity: 70%).

Conclusion

The LP-IR index is a simple, accurate, and clinically useful test to assess IR in South Asians.

Transferability of genetic loci and polygenic scores for cardiometabolic traits in British Pakistani and Bangladeshi individuals

Individuals with South Asian ancestry have a higher risk of heart disease than other groups but have been largely excluded from genetic research. Using data from 22,000 British Pakistani and Bangladeshi individuals with linked electronic health records from the Genes & Health cohort, we conducted genome-wide association studies of coronary artery disease and its key risk factors. Using power-adjusted transferability ratios, we found evidence for transferability for the majority of cardiometabolic loci powered to replicate. The performance of polygenic scores was high for lipids and blood pressure, but lower for BMI and coronary artery disease. Adding a polygenic score for coronary artery disease to clinical risk factors showed significant improvement in reclassification. In Mendelian randomisation using transferable loci as instruments, our findings were consistent with results in European-ancestry individuals. Taken together, trait-specific transferability of trait loci between populations is an important consideration with implications for risk prediction and causal inference.

Evaluation of remnant cholesterol levels and Monocyte-to-HDL-cholesterol ratio in South Asian patients with acute coronary syndrome

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

In the present study, we aimed to compare the clinical and coronary angiography features between South Asian and Caucasian patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS). In particular, we focused our analysis on the evaluation of recent cardiovascular risk markers, such as remnant cholesterol, corresponding to all plasma cholesterol minus HDL-C (high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) and LDL-C (low-density lipoprotein cholesterol), and the Monocyte-to-HDL-cholesterol ratio. We also compared values of several lipoprotein ratios and the Platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio, accurate predictors of coronary events and coronary artery disease.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We recruited 40 South Asian and 40 Caucasian patients admitted for ACS. Data were collected by consulting patients' medical records. We used Chi-square test and Student's t-test to analyse qualitative and quantitative variables, respectively. South Asian patients, compared to Caucasians, showed higher mean values of the parameters analysed: remnant cholesterol (32.6 ± 17 vs 26.5 ± 9.6), Monocyte-to-HDL-cholesterol ratio (26.4 ± 48.7 vs 16.5 ± 8.3), Platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (124.7 ± 130.7 vs 120.5 ± 58.8). Moreover, higher mean values of several lipoprotein ratios were also found in South Asian patients compared to the control group. However, statistical significance was not reached for any of these differences observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The evaluation of the parameters analysed in this study might provide accurate information regarding the cardio-metabolic risk in South Asian patients. However, further studies with larger samples are needed to obtain more significant results.

Prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in South Asians in the US: A clinical perspective from the National Lipid Association

It is now well recognized that South Asians living in the US (SAUS) have a higher prevalence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) that begins earlier and is more aggressive than age-matched people of other ethnicities. SA ancestry is now recognized as a risk enhancer in the US cholesterol treatment guidelines. The pathophysiology of this is not fully understood but may relate to insulin resistance, genetic and dietary factors, lack of physical exercise, visceral adiposity and other, yet undiscovered biologic mechanisms. In this expert consensus document, we review the epidemiology of ASCVD in this population, enumerate the challenges faced in tackling this problem, provide strategies for early screening and education of the community and their healthcare providers, and offer practical prevention strategies and culturally-tailored dietary advice to lower the rates of ASCVD in this cohort.

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibitors in precision medicine

Dyslipidemia is associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease development, posing serious risks to human health. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) is responsible for exchange of neutral lipids, such as cholesteryl ester and TG, between plasma high density lipoprotein (HDL) particles and Apolipoprotein B-100 (ApoB-100) containing lipoprotein particles. Genetic studies suggest that single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) with loss of activity CETP is associated with increased HDL-C, reduced LDL-C, and cardiovascular risk. In animal studies, mostly in rabbits, which have similar CETP activity to humans, inhibition of CETP through antisense oligonucleotides reduced aortic arch atherosclerosis. Concerning this notion, inhibiting the CETP is considered as a promise approach to reduce cardiovascular events, and several CETP inhibitors have been recently studied as a cholesterol modifying agent to reduce cardiovascular mortality in high risk cardiovascular disease patients. However, in Phase III cardiovascular outcome trials, three CETP inhibitors, named Torcetrapib, Dalcetrapib, and Evacetrapib, did not provide expected cardiovascular benefits and failed to improve outcomes of patient with cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Although REVEAL trail has recently shown that Anacetrapib could reduce major coronary events, it was also shown to induce excessive lipid accumulation in adipose tissue; thereby, the further regulatory approval will not be sought. On the other hand, growing evidence indicated that the function of CETP inhibitors on modulating the cardiovascular events are determined by correlated single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the ADCY9 gene. However, the underlying mechanisms whereby CETP inhibitors interact with the genotype are not yet elucidated, which could potentially be related to the genotype-dependent cholesterol efflux capacity of HDL particles. In the present review, we summarize the current understanding of the functions of CETP and the outcomes of the phase III randomized controlled trials of CETP inhibitors. In addition, we also put forward the implications from results of the trials which potentially suggest that the CETP inhibitors could be a promising precise therapeutic medicine for CVD based on genetic background.

Risk factors for myocardial infarction in very young South Asians

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

It is only over the last few decades that the impact of coronary artery disease (CAD) in very young South Asian population has been recognized. There has been a tremendous interest in elucidating the causes behind this phenomenon and these efforts have uncovered several mechanisms that might explain the early onset of CAD in this population. The complete risk profile of very young South Asians being affected by premature CAD still remains unknown.

RECENT FINDINGS

The existing data fail to completely explain the burden of premature occurrence of CAD in South Asians especially in very young individuals. Results from some studies identified nine risk factors, including low consumption of fruits and vegetables, smoking, alcohol, diabetes, psychosocial factors, sedentary lifestyle, abdominal obesity, hypertension and dyslipidemia as the cause of myocardial infarction in 90% of the patients in this population. Recent large genome-wide association studies have discovered the association of several novel genetic loci with CAD in South Asians. Nonetheless, continued scientific efforts are required to further our understanding of the causal risk factors of CAD in South Asians to address the rising burden of CVD in this vulnerable population.

SUMMARY

In this review, we discuss established and emerging risk factors of CAD in this population.

Lipids in South Asians: Epidemiology and Management

Purpose of Review

This review focuses on lipoprotein abnormalities in South Asians (SA) and addresses risk stratification and management strategies to lower atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) in this high-risk population.

Recent Findings

South Asians (SAs) are the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States (U.S) and have an increased risk of premature coronary artery disease (CAD). While the etiology may be multifactorial, lipoprotein abnormalities play a key role. SAs have lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) compared with Whites and at any given LDL-C level, SA ethnicity poses a higher risk of myocardial infarction (MI) and coronary artery disease (CAD) compared with other non-Asian groups. SAs have lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) with smaller particle sizes of HDL-C compared with Whites. SAs also have higher triglycerides than Whites which is strongly related to the high prevalence of metabolic syndrome in SAs. Lipoprotein a (Lp(a)) levels are also higher in SAs compared with many other ethnic groups. This unique lipoprotein profile plays a vital role in the elevated ASCVD risk in SAs. Studies evaluating dietary patterns of SAs in the U.S show high consumption of carbohydrates and saturated fats.

Summary

SAs have a high-risk lipoprotein profile compared with other ethnicities. Lipid abnormalities play a central role in the pathogenesis of CAD in SAs. More studies are needed to understand the true impact of the various lipoproteins and their contribution to increasing ASCVD in SAs. Aggressive lowering of LDL-C in high-risk groups using medications, such as statins, and lifestyle modification including dietary changes is essential in overall CAD risk reduction.

Is lipid goal one-size-fits-all: A review of evidence for recommended low-density lipoprotein treatment targets in Asian patients

The international guideline recommendations for low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) lowering were made based on the results of randomized controlled trials (RCTs), meta-analyses, and observational studies mostly in the White population. It was not clear whether these LDL-C targets could be applicable to other ethnic groups, for example, Asian patients. This review aimed to address major aspects related to the lipid goal and statin therapy in Asia, including the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease, the LDL-C profiles, the lipid goals from localized guidelines, genetics and lifestyles, and the efficacy and safety of statins. Owing to the geographic, ethnic, genetic, and cultural diversity in this region, we observed a geographic pattern of diversity in cardiovascular epidemiology and statin response in Central Asia, East Asia (particularly for Asia-Pacific region), and South Asia. The rapidly growing literature from Asian countries questioning "lower is better" hypothesis was noticed. However, owing to the nature of these dominantly observational data, the conclusion was hardly confirmative. Despite the rapid expansion of the current literature in this region, efforts should be made to ensure an adequate sample size to assess the significance of a given lipid parameter on overall cardiovascular outcomes in this Asian population.

Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in South Asians in the United States: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, and Treatments: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

South Asians (from Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka) make up one quarter of the world's population and are one of the fastest-growing ethnic groups in the United States. Although native South Asians share genetic and cultural risk factors with South Asians abroad, South Asians in the United States can differ in socioeconomic status, education, healthcare behaviors, attitudes, and health insurance, which can affect their risk and the treatment and outcomes of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). South Asians have higher proportional mortality rates from ASCVD compared with other Asian groups and non-Hispanic whites, in contrast to the finding that Asian Americans (Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese) aggregated as a group are at lower risk of ASCVD, largely because of the lower risk observed in East Asian populations. Literature relevant to South Asian populations regarding demographics and risk factors, health behaviors, and interventions, including physical activity, diet, medications, and community strategies, is summarized. The evidence to date is that the biology of ASCVD is complex but is no different in South Asians than in any other racial/ethnic group. A majority of the risk in South Asians can be explained by the increased prevalence of known risk factors, especially those related to insulin resistance, and no unique risk factors in this population have been found. This scientific statement focuses on how ASCVD risk factors affect the South Asian population in order to make recommendations for clinical strategies to reduce disease and for directions for future research to reduce ASCVD in this population.

Slim Body Weight Is Highly Associated With Enhanced Lipoprotein Functionality, Higher HDL-C, and Large HDL Particle Size in Young Women

There has been no information about the correlations between body weight distribution and lipoprotein metabolism in terms of high-density lipoproteins-cholesterol (HDL-C) and cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). In this study, we analyzed the quantity and quality of HDL correlations in young women (21.5 ± 1.2-years-old) with a slim (n = 21, 46.2 ± 3.8 kg) or plump (n = 30, 54.6 ± 4.4 kg) body weight. Body weight was inversely correlated with the percentage of HDL-C in total cholesterol (TC). The plump group showed 40% higher body fat (26 ± 3 %) and 86% more visceral fat mass (VFM, 1.3 ± 0.3 kg) than the slim group, which showed 18 ± 2% body fat and 0.7 ± 0.2 kg of VFM. Additionally, the plump group showed 20% higher TC, 58% higher triglyceride (TG), and 12% lower HDL-C levels in serum. The slim group showed 34% higher apoA-I but 15% lower CETP content in serum compared to the plump group. The slim group showed a 13% increase in particle size and 1.9-fold increase in particle number with enhanced cholesterol efflux activity. Although the plump group was within a normal body mass index (BMI) range, its lipid profile and lipoprotein properties were distinctly different from those of the slim group in terms of CETP mass and activity, HDL functionality, and HDL particle size.

Elevated levels of preβ1-high-density lipoprotein are associated with cholesterol ester transfer protein, the presence and severity of coronary artery disease

Background

Preβ1-high-density lipoprotein (preβ1-HDL), plays an important role in reverse cholesterol transport and exhibits potent risk for coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the association of plasma preβ1-HDL and cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) levels in CAD patients and the relationship of preβ1-HDL with extent of CAD are debatable.

Methods

Preβ1-HDL and CETP levels were measured by enzymed-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISAs) in 88 acute coronary syndromes (ACS), 79 stable coronary artery disease (SCAD) patients and 85 control subjects. The correlation analyses, multiple linear regression analyses and logistic regression analyses were performed, respectively.

Results

The preβ1-HDL and CETP levels in ACS patients were significantly higher than those in SCAD patients and both of them were higher than controls’. Preβ1-HDL levels were positively associated with CETP (R = 0.348, P = 0.000), the diameter of stenosis (R = 0.253, P = 0.005), the number of vessel disease (R = 0.274, P = 0.002) and Gensini score (R = 0.227, P = 0.009) in CAD patients. Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses showed that CETP was one of the determinants of preβ1-HDL levels. Logistic regression analysis revealed that elevated preβ1-HDL and CETP were potential risk factors for both ACS and SCAD.

Conclusion

The elevated preβ1-HDL levels may change with CETP concentrations in CAD patients and were related to the presence and severity of CAD.

Serum Lipid Transfer Proteins in Hypothyreotic Patients Are Inversely Correlated with Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Levels

Background

Plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity is often decreased in patients with hypothyroidism, whereas less is known about the phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP). We aimed to evaluate simultaneously serum CETP and PLTP activity in patients diagnosed with hypothyroidism.

Material/Methods

The selection criteria for control group members (without thyroid dysfunction) in this case to case study were levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglycerides similar to those in study group patients (101 patients diagnosed with hypothyroidism). Serum CETP and PLTP activities were measured by homogenous fluorometric assays using synthetic donor particle substrates.

Results

Serum CETP and PLTP activities in hypothyreotic patients were lower (p<0.001) compared with those in healthy subjects. This lowering was associated with significant changes in HDL-C subclasses: decrease in HDL₂- and increase in HDL₃ cholesterol levels. Multiple linear regression analyses adjusted for age, sex, body mass index, smoking habits, and alcohol drinking showed a strong association between hypothyroidism and activity of lipid transfer proteins. A linear inverse relationship between thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and CETP (r=−0.21; p<0.01) and between TSH and PLTP (r=−0.24; p<0.001) was shown. There also was a positive correlation (p<0.001) between CETP and HDL₂ cholesterol (r=0.27) and between PLTP and HDL₂ cholesterol (r=0.37). A negative correlation between CETP and HDL₃ cholesterol (r=−0.22: p<0.01) and between PLTP and HDL₃ cholesterol (r=−0.24; p<0.001) has been demonstrated as well.

Conclusions

The decreased HDL₂ and increased HDL₃ cholesterol levels in subjects with hypothyroidism are consequences of decreased activity of lipid transfer proteins. These changes are early symptoms of lipid disturbances in hypothyroidism.

Serum CETP and PLTP activity in middle-aged men living in urban or rural area of the Lower Silesia region. PURE Poland sub-study

INTRODUCTION

The dependence of lipid transfer proteins on significant pro-atherogenic factors is unclear. The aim of the study was to evaluate serum cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) and phospholipid transfer protein (PLTP) activity in relation to lipid disturbances in men living in an urban or rural area.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A group of 427 men, volunteers for the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) sub-study - 263 urban inhabitants (aged 51.9 ±6.0) and 164 residents of villages (aged 51.1 ±5.9) - were examined. In the multivariable linear regression model, the following factors were included as potential confounders: age, body mass index (BMI), smoking, alcohol consumption, hs-C-reactive protein reaction (hs-CRP) and co-existence of chronic diseases.

RESULTS

In multiple linear regression models, site of residence (urban or rural area) was the most important independent and consistent predictor of CETP and PLTP activity; β coefficients (95% CI) for CETP (0.18) and PLTP (-0.29) were significant at levels of p < 0.001. Three-way analysis of variance showed no effect of smoking or moderate alcohol consumption on lipid transfer proteins; however, CETP activity showed an interaction effect between these risk factors. In the group of all men, CETP activity was significantly and positively correlated with total cholesterol (r = 0.24), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (r = 0.18), and non-high density lipoprotein cholesterol (r = 0.21), whereas PLTP activity was correlated with BMI (r = 0.12). Body mass index in rural men was higher than in the urban male population.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased PLTP activity, recognized as a pro-atherogenic factor, and decreased CETP activity, known as a protective factor, both observed in men living in rural areas, are probably conditioned by nutritional and/or genetic factors.

Lipoprotein abnormalities in South Asians and its association with cardiovascular disease: Current state and future directions

South Asians have a high prevalence of coronary heart disease (CHD) and suffer from early-onset CHD compared to other ethnic groups. Conventional risk factors may not fully explain this increased CHD risk in this population. Indeed, South Asians have a unique lipid profile which may predispose them to premature CHD. Dyslipidemia in this patient population seems to be an important contributor to the high incidence of coronary atherosclerosis. The dyslipidemia in South Asians is characterized by elevated levels of triglycerides, low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, elevated lipoprotein(a) levels, and a higher atherogenic particle burden despite comparable low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels compared with other ethnic subgroups. HDL particles also appear to be smaller, dysfunctional, and proatherogenic in South Asians. Despite the rapid expansion of the current literature with better understanding of the specific lipid abnormalities in this patient population, studies with adequate sample sizes are needed to assess the significance and contribution of a given lipid parameter on overall cardiovascular risk in this population. Specific management goals and treatment thresholds do not exist for South Asians because of paucity of data. Current treatment recommendations are mostly extrapolated from Western guidelines. Lastly, large, prospective studies with outcomes data are needed to assess cardiovascular benefit associated with various lipid-lowering therapies (including combination therapy) in this patient population.

High level of serum cholesteryl ester transfer protein in active hepatitis C virus infection

AIM: To determine the significance of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) in lipoprotein abnormalities in chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.

METHODS: We evaluated the significance of the serum concentration of CETP in 110 Japanese patients with chronic HCV infection. Fifty-five patients had active HCV infection, and HCV eradication had been achieved in 55. The role of CETP in serum lipoprotein abnormalities, specifically, in triglyceride (TG) concentrations in the four major classes of lipoproteins, was investigated using Pearson correlations in conjunction with multiple regression analysis and compared them between those with active HCV infection and those in whom eradication had been achieved.

RESULTS: The serum CETP levels of patients with active HCV infection were significantly higher than those of patients in whom HCV eradication was achieved (mean ± SD, 2.84 ± 0.69 μg/mL vs 2.40 ± 1.00 μg/mL, P = 0.008). In multiple regression analysis, HCV infection status (active or eradicated) was an independent factor significantly associated with the serum CETP level. TG concentrations in low-density lipoprotein (mean ± SD, 36.25 ± 15.28 μg/mL vs 28.14 ± 9.94 μg/mL, P = 0.001) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (mean ± SD, 25.9 ± 7.34 μg/mL vs 17.17 ± 4.82 μg/mL, P < 0.001) were significantly higher in patients with active HCV infection than in those in whom HCV eradication was achieved. The CETP level was strongly correlated with HDL-TG in patients with active HCV infection (R = 0.557, P < 0.001), whereas CETP was not correlated with HDL-TG in patients in whom HCV eradication was achieved (R = -0.079, P = 0.56).

CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that CETP plays a role in abnormalities of lipoprotein metabolism in patients with chronic HCV infection.

Cardiovascular Disease in South Asian Migrants

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) represents a significant cause of global mortality and morbidity. South Asians (SAs) have a particularly high burden of coronary artery disease (CAD). This review describes current literature regarding the prevalence, incidence, etiology, and prognosis of CVD in SA migrants to high-income nations. We conducted a narrative review of CVD in the SA diaspora through a search of MEDLINE and PubMed. We included observational studies, randomized clinical trials, nonsystematic reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses written in English. Of 15,231 articles identified, 827 articles were screened and 124 formed the basis for review. SA migrants have a 1.5-2 times greater prevalence of CAD than age- and sex-adjusted Europids. Increased abdominal obesity and body fat and increased burden of type 2 diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia appear to be primary drivers of the excess CAD burden in SAs. Sedentary lifestyle and changes in diet after immigration are important contributors to weight gain and adiposity. Early life factors, physical activity patterns and, in some cases, reduced adherence to medical therapy may contribute to increased CVD risks in SAs. Novel biomarkers like leptin and adipokines may show distinct patterns in SAs and provide insights into cardiometabolic risk determinants. In conclusion, SAs have distinct CVD risk predispositions, with a complex relationship to cultural, innate, and acquired factors. Although CVD risk factor management and treatment among SAs is improving, opportunities exist for further advances.

Will Lipidation of ApoA1 through Interaction with ABCA1 at the Intestinal Level Affect the Protective Functions of HDL?

The relationship between levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and cardiovascular (CV) risk is well recognized; however, in recent years, large-scale phase III studies with HDL-C-raising or -mimicking agents have failed to demonstrate a clinical benefit on CV outcomes associated with raising HDL-C, casting doubt on the "HDL hypothesis." This article reviews potential reasons for the observed negative findings with these pharmaceutical compounds, focusing on the paucity of translational models and relevant biomarkers related to HDL metabolism that may have confounded understanding of in vivo mechanisms. A unique function of HDL is its ability to interact with the ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) A1 via apolipoprotein (Apo) A1. Only recently, studies have shown that this process may be involved in the intestinal uptake of dietary sterols and antioxidants (vitamin E, lutein and zeaxanthin) at the basolateral surface of enterocytes. This parameter should be assessed for HDL-raising drugs in addition to the more documented reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) from peripheral tissues to the liver. Indeed, a single mechanism involving the same interaction between ApoA1 and ABCA1 may encompass two HDL functions previously considered as separate: antioxidant through the intestinal uptake of antioxidants and RCT through cholesterol efflux from loaded cells such as macrophages.

Novel study on N-nitrosamines as risk factors of cardiovascular diseases

Millions of people are exposed daily to N-nitrosamines from different environmental sources. The present study aims at investigating the role of N-nitrosamines in the alteration of homocysteine, lipid profile, oxidative stress, paraoxonase activity, antioxidant enzymes, and free radicals which are important risk factors for CVD. In addition, biomarkers of cardiovascular diseases such as creatine kinase MB activity (CK-MB) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) as well as protein expression of both glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase π isozyme were assayed after treatment of rats with 0.2 mg/kg body weight of N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA), N-nitrosoethylbutylamine (NEBA), N-nitrosobutylpropylamine (NBPA), N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), and N-nitrosodiphenylamine (NDPA) as a daily dose for two weeks. LDL levels, paraoxonase activity, reduced glutathione levels, and glutathione reductase activities were increased, whereas HDL levels decreased after treatment of rats with most of N-nitrosamines compared to control group. Moreover, levels of free radicals and catalase activity increased, whereas protein expression of both glutathione peroxidase and glutathione S-transferase decreased after treatment of rats with some N-nitrosamines. The data showed that most N-nitrosamines increased CK-MB and LDH activities. It is concluded that N-nitrosamines increased levels of free radicals, and decreased the activity of antioxidant enzymes which may consequently increase the incidence of CVDs.