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Brieditis E, Li X, Sundquist K, Jansåker F. Vulvovaginal candidiasis and type 2 diabetes: A nationwide retrospective cohort study. Diabetes Obes Metab 2024. [PMID: 38978186 DOI: 10.1111/dom.15757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
AIMS To examine whether vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) precedes type 2 diabetes and to quantify the possible time period between VVC and subsequent diabetes. MATERIAL AND METHODS We conducted a nationwide retrospective primary healthcare study including 1 838 929 women aged 35-65 years in Sweden (2007-2018). Cox regression models were used to examine associations between VVC and type 2 diabetes, while controlling for possible confounders. Propensity-score-weighted analysis was also conducted. RESULTS The incidence rate of diabetes per 1000 person-years was 3.06 (95% confidence interval [CI] 3.05-3.08) in women without preceding VVC and 4.05 (95% CI 3.86-4.24) in women with preceding VVC. The incidence rate was particularly high in women aged 55 years and older with VVC: 9.56 (95% CI 8.01-11.11). Women with VVC had a hazard ratio (HR) of 1.41 (95% CI 1.28-1.55) for diabetes compared to women without VVC in the multivariable-adjusted model. The corresponding HR was 1.63 (95% CI 1.53-1.74) in propensity-score-weighted analysis. Women with prior VVC also seemed to have a stronger risk of diabetes with older age, particularly after the age of 55 years. The mean (range) time between VVC and subsequent diabetes was 0.57 (0-2) years, depending on the age of the woman. CONCLUSION We found temporal associations between VVC and diabetes. The findings demonstrate that the presence of VVC may indicate a future diagnosis of diabetes, especially in women aged 55 years and older. This knowledge could be valuable for clinicians when treating women with VVC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emelie Brieditis
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Malmö, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
- University Clinic Primary Care Skåne, Region Skåne, Sweden
| | - Xinjun Li
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Malmö, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Kristina Sundquist
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Malmö, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
- University Clinic Primary Care Skåne, Region Skåne, Sweden
- Center for Community-Based Healthcare Research and Education (CoHRE), Department of Functional Pathology, School of Medicine, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
| | - Filip Jansåker
- Center for Primary Health Care Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, Malmö, Lund University, Malmö, Sweden
- University Clinic Primary Care Skåne, Region Skåne, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Center of Diagnostic Investigations, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Dalabehera M, Rathore C, Rathee A, Lal UR. From plants to particles: herbal solutions and nanotechnology combating resistant vulvovaginal candidiasis. Ther Deliv 2024; 15:371-392. [PMID: 38651887 PMCID: PMC11221605 DOI: 10.4155/tde-2023-0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite having current advanced therapy, vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) remains a common yet debated healthcare-associated topic worldwide due to multi-drug resistance Candida species. In our review, we outlined and highlighted upcoming values with scope of existing and emerging information regarding the possibility of using various natural molecules combined with modern technology that shows promising anti-candida activity in VVC. Furthermore, in this review, we compiled herbal drug molecules and their nanocarriers approach for enhancing the efficacy and stability of herbal molecules. We have also summarized the patent literature available on herbal drug molecules and their nanoformulation techniques that could alternatively become a new innovative era to combat resistance VVC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Dalabehera
- University Institute of Pharma Sciences, Chandigarh University, Ajitgarh, Punjab, India
| | - Charul Rathore
- University Institute of Pharma Sciences, Chandigarh University, Ajitgarh, Punjab, India
| | - Ankit Rathee
- University Institute of Pharma Sciences, Chandigarh University, Ajitgarh, Punjab, India
| | - Uma Ranjan Lal
- Department of Natural Products, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education & Research, Punjab 160062 Mohali, India
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3
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Picheta N, Piekarz J, Burdan O, Satora M, Tarkowski R, Kułak K. Phytotherapy of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: A Narrative Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3796. [PMID: 38612606 PMCID: PMC11012191 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a real gynecological problem among women of reproductive age from 15 to 49. A recent analysis showed that 75% of women will have an occurrence at least once per year, while 5% are observed to have recurrent vaginal mycosis-these patients may become unwell four or more times a year. This pathology is caused in 85-90% of cases by fungi of the Candida albicans species. It represents an intractable medical problem for female patients due to pain and pruritus. Due to the observation of an increasing number of strains resistant to standard preparations and an increase in the recurrence of this pathology when using local or oral preferential therapy, such as fluconazole, an analysis was launched to develop alternative methods of treating VVC using herbs such as dill, turmeric, and berberine. An in-depth analysis of databases that include scientific articles from recent years made it possible to draw satisfactory conclusions supporting the validity of herbal therapy for the pathology in question. Although phytotherapy has not yet been approved by the Food and Drug Administration, it appears to be a promising therapeutic solution for strains that are resistant to existing treatments. There is research currently undergoing aimed at comparing classical pharmacotherapy and herbal therapy in the treatment of vaginal candidiasis for the purpose of increasing medical competence and knowledge for the care of the health and long-term comfort of gynecological patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Picheta
- Student’s Scientific Association at the I Chair and Department of Gynaecological Oncology and Gynaecology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Str., 20-081 Lublin, Poland; (N.P.); (J.P.); (O.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Julia Piekarz
- Student’s Scientific Association at the I Chair and Department of Gynaecological Oncology and Gynaecology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Str., 20-081 Lublin, Poland; (N.P.); (J.P.); (O.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Oliwia Burdan
- Student’s Scientific Association at the I Chair and Department of Gynaecological Oncology and Gynaecology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Str., 20-081 Lublin, Poland; (N.P.); (J.P.); (O.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Małgorzata Satora
- Student’s Scientific Association at the I Chair and Department of Gynaecological Oncology and Gynaecology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Str., 20-081 Lublin, Poland; (N.P.); (J.P.); (O.B.); (M.S.)
| | - Rafał Tarkowski
- I Chair and Department of Gynaecological Oncology and Gynaecology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Str., 20-081 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Krzysztof Kułak
- I Chair and Department of Gynaecological Oncology and Gynaecology, Medical University of Lublin, Staszica 16 Str., 20-081 Lublin, Poland;
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4
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Valentine M, Rudolph P, Dietschmann A, Tsavou A, Mogavero S, Lee S, Priest EL, Zhurgenbayeva G, Jablonowski N, Timme S, Eggeling C, Allert S, Dolk E, Naglik JR, Figge MT, Gresnigt MS, Hube B. Nanobody-mediated neutralization of candidalysin prevents epithelial damage and inflammatory responses that drive vulvovaginal candidiasis pathogenesis. mBio 2024; 15:e0340923. [PMID: 38349176 PMCID: PMC10936171 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03409-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans can cause mucosal infections in humans. This includes oropharyngeal candidiasis, which is commonly observed in human immunodeficiency virus infected patients, and vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), which is the most frequent manifestation of candidiasis. Epithelial cell invasion by C. albicans hyphae is accompanied by the secretion of candidalysin, a peptide toxin that causes epithelial cell cytotoxicity. During vaginal infections, candidalysin-driven tissue damage triggers epithelial signaling pathways, leading to hyperinflammatory responses and immunopathology, a hallmark of VVC. Therefore, we proposed blocking candidalysin activity using nanobodies to reduce epithelial damage and inflammation as a therapeutic strategy for VVC. Anti-candidalysin nanobodies were confirmed to localize around epithelial-invading C. albicans hyphae, even within the invasion pocket where candidalysin is secreted. The nanobodies reduced candidalysin-induced damage to epithelial cells and downstream proinflammatory responses. Accordingly, the nanobodies also decreased neutrophil activation and recruitment. In silico mathematical modeling enabled the quantification of epithelial damage caused by candidalysin under various nanobody dosing strategies. Thus, nanobody-mediated neutralization of candidalysin offers a novel therapeutic approach to block immunopathogenic events during VVC and alleviate symptoms.IMPORTANCEWorldwide, vaginal infections caused by Candida albicans (VVC) annually affect millions of women, with symptoms significantly impacting quality of life. Current treatments are based on anti-fungals and probiotics that target the fungus. However, in some cases, infections are recurrent, called recurrent VVC, which often fails to respond to treatment. Vaginal mucosal tissue damage caused by the C. albicans peptide toxin candidalysin is a key driver in the induction of hyperinflammatory responses that fail to clear the infection and contribute to immunopathology and disease severity. In this pre-clinical evaluation, we show that nanobody-mediated candidalysin neutralization reduces tissue damage and thereby limits inflammation. Implementation of candidalysin-neutralizing nanobodies may prove an attractive strategy to alleviate symptoms in complicated VVC cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Valentine
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Paul Rudolph
- Applied Systems Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Axel Dietschmann
- Junior Research Group Adaptive Pathogenicity Strategies, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Antzela Tsavou
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, England, United Kingdom
| | - Selene Mogavero
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Sejeong Lee
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, England, United Kingdom
| | - Emily L. Priest
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, England, United Kingdom
| | - Gaukhar Zhurgenbayeva
- Institute of Applied Optics and Biophysics, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Nadja Jablonowski
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Sandra Timme
- Applied Systems Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Eggeling
- Institute of Applied Optics and Biophysics, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Biophysical Imaging, Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Jena, Germany
- Jena Center for Soft Matter (JCSM), Jena, Germany
| | - Stefanie Allert
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Julian R. Naglik
- Centre for Host-Microbiome Interactions, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King’s College London, London, England, United Kingdom
| | - Marc T. Figge
- Applied Systems Biology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany
| | - Mark S. Gresnigt
- Junior Research Group Adaptive Pathogenicity Strategies, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department of Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology–Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany
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Yazdy GM, Mitchell C, Sobel JD, Tuddenham S. Recurrent Infectious Vaginitis: A Practical Approach for the Primary Care Clinician. Med Clin North Am 2024; 108:373-392. [PMID: 38331486 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2023.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Recurrent infectious vaginitis can lead to significant morbidity, patient frustration, and health care costs. The most common causes are bacterial vaginosis (BV) and vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC); however, other infectious and noninfectious etiologies should be considered in patients with recurrent symptoms. A detailed history and physical examination with appropriate testing at the time of symptoms is critical to establishing a correct diagnosis. Management options for recurrent BV and VVC are limited. Complex cases including those with atypical symptoms, negative testing for common causes, refractory symptoms despite appropriate therapy or recurrences during suppressive therapy will require referral to specialist care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Golsa M Yazdy
- Department of Gynecology & Obstetrics, Johns Hopkins University, 4940 Eastern Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Caroline Mitchell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Jack D Sobel
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Wayne State University, 3901 Chrysler Drive Suite 4A, Detroit, MI 48201, USA
| | - Susan Tuddenham
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University, 5200 Eastern Avenue, MFL Center Tower, Suite 381, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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6
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Liang X, Pacuła-Miszewska AJ, Obieziurska-Fabisiak M, Vartak R, Mao G, Patel K, Fedosova NU, Ścianowski J, Billack B. Selected N-Terpenyl Organoselenium Compounds Possess Antimycotic Activity In Vitro and in a Mouse Model of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis. Molecules 2023; 28:7377. [PMID: 37959796 PMCID: PMC10647704 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28217377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present work, a series of N-terpenyl organoselenium compounds (CHB1-6) were evaluated for antimycotic activity by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for each compound in fluconazole (FLU)-sensitive (S1) and FLU-resistant (S2) strains of Candida albicans (C. albicans). The most active compounds in the MIC screen were CHB4 and CHB6, which were then evaluated for cytotoxicity in human cervical cancer cells (KB-3-1) and found to be selective for fungi. Next, CHB4 and CHB6 were investigated for skin irritation using a reconstructed 3D human epidermis and both compounds were considered safe to the epidermis. Using a mouse model of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), CHB4 and CHB6 both exhibited antimycotic efficacy by reducing yeast colonization of the vaginal tract, alleviating injury to the vaginal mucosa, and decreasing the abundance of myeloperoxidase (MPO) expression in the tissue, indicating a reduced inflammatory response. In conclusion, CHB4 and CHB6 demonstrate antifungal activity in vitro and in the mouse model of VVC and represent two new promising antifungal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuyi Liang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA; (X.L.); (R.V.); (G.M.); (K.P.)
| | - Agata J. Pacuła-Miszewska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, 87-100 Toruń, Poland; (A.J.P.-M.); (M.O.-F.); (J.Ś.)
| | | | - Richa Vartak
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA; (X.L.); (R.V.); (G.M.); (K.P.)
| | - Ganming Mao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA; (X.L.); (R.V.); (G.M.); (K.P.)
| | - Ketankumar Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA; (X.L.); (R.V.); (G.M.); (K.P.)
| | | | - Jacek Ścianowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, 87-100 Toruń, Poland; (A.J.P.-M.); (M.O.-F.); (J.Ś.)
| | - Blase Billack
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, St. John’s University, Queens, NY 11439, USA; (X.L.); (R.V.); (G.M.); (K.P.)
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Martínez-García E, Martínez-Martínez JC, Martín-Salvador A, González-García A, Pérez-Morente MÁ, Álvarez-Serrano MA, García-García I. Epidemiological Profile of Patients with Vulvovaginal Candidiasis from a Sexually Transmitted Infection Clinic in Southern Spain. Pathogens 2023; 12:756. [PMID: 37375446 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12060756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological data on women suffering from vulvovaginal candidiasis and its recurrence are outdated and vague. The aim of this study was to identify the prevalence of women diagnosed with vulvovaginal candidiasis, as well as the epidemiological profile and associated risk factors in the province of Granada (Spain). Data from the Centre for Sexually Transmitted Infections of the Granada province between 2000 and 2018 (N = 438) were used in this study. Associations between sociodemographic and sexual behaviour variables with vulvovaginal candidiasis were analysed using the Chi-square test and bivariate logistic regression. The prevalence of candidiasis was 14.6%. The sociodemographic profile corresponded to a woman aged 25.14 ± 4.8 years on average, who is of Spanish nationality (60.9%), a student (55.7%), in non-active employment (59.7%), with a higher education (56.7%), single (93.5%), and under 30 years of age (79.7%). Variables associated with this diagnosis were the absence of oro-genital contact (OR = 1.99; 95% CI = 0.25-0.74), having a regular partner (OR = 1.99; 95% CI = 1.05-3.75), and age of sexual debut, with the probability increasing by 12% (95% CI = 1.00-1.24) with each year. In this context, vulvovaginal candidiasis infection is common, and its epidemiological profile is contradictory, so our results do not suggest a relevant role of sexual risk behaviours in the diagnosis. Further research is needed to improve the estimates and factors associated with this infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Encarnación Martínez-García
- Guadix High Resolution Hospital, Andalusian Health Service, 18500 Granada, Spain
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | | | - Adelina Martín-Salvador
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Alberto González-García
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
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Jin X, Li M, Mao Z, Deng A, Lv W, Huang L, Zhong H, Yang H, Zhang L, Liao Q, Huang G. An Integrated and Multi-Target Nucleic Acid Isothermal Analysis System for Rapid Diagnosis of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:bios13050559. [PMID: 37232920 DOI: 10.3390/bios13050559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Rapid identification of Candida species is significant for the diagnosis of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). An integrated and multi-target system for the rapid, high-specificity, and high-sensitivity detection of four Candida species was developed. The system consists of a rapid sample processing cassette and a rapid nucleic acid analysis device. The cassette could process the Candida species to release nucleic acids in 15 min. The released nucleic acids were analyzed by the device as fast as within 30 min, using the loop-mediated isothermal amplification method. The four Candida species could be simultaneously identified, with each reaction using only 1.41 µL of reaction mixture, which was low cost. The RPT (rapid sample processing and testing) system could detect the four Candida species with high sensitivity (<2 CFU/reaction) and high specificity. The system also processed and analyzed 32 clinical samples, giving the results with high clinical sensitivity and specificity. Hence, the system was a significant and effective platform for the diagnosis of VVC. Furthermore, the period of validity of the reagents and chips used in the system was >90 days, and the system could also be used for the detection of bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyu Jin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Meng Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 102218, China
| | - Zeyin Mao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Anni Deng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wenqi Lv
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Leyang Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hao Zhong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Han Yang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 102218, China
| | - Qinping Liao
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Beijing Tsinghua Changgung Hospital, School of Clinical Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 102218, China
| | - Guoliang Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- National Engineering Research Center for Beijing Biochip Technology, Beijing 102206, China
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