Inhibition of oxidative stress and NLRP3 inflammasome by Saikosaponin-d alleviates acute liver injury in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatitis in mice

A comprehensive review of bupleuri radix and its bioactive components： with a major focus on treating chronic liver diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Bupleuri Radix (BR) has been recognized as an essential herbal medicine for relieving liver depression for thousands of years. Contemporary research has provided compelling evidence of its pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, metabolic regulation, and anticancer properties, positioning it as a promising treatment option for various liver diseases. Hepatitis, steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer are among the prevalent and impactful liver diseases worldwide. However, there remains a lack of comprehensive systematic reviews that explore the prescription, bio-active components, and underlying mechanisms of BR in treating liver diseases.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To summarize the BR classical Chinese medical prescription and ingredients in treating liver diseases and their mechanisms to inform reference for further development and research.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature in the last three decades of BR and its classical Chinese medical prescription and ingredients were collated and summarized by searching PubMed, Wiley, Springer, Google Scholar, Web of Science, CNKI, etc. RESULTS: BR and its classical prescriptions, such as Xiao Chai Hu decoction, Da Chai Hu decoction, Si Ni San, and Chai Hu Shu Gan San, have been utilized for centuries as effective therapies for liver diseases, including hepatitis, steatohepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. BR is a rich source of active ingredients, such as saikosaponins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, sterols, organic acids, and so on. These bioactive compounds exhibit a wide range of beneficial effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and lipid metabolism regulation. However, it is important to acknowledge that BR and its constituents can also possess hepatotoxicity, which is associated with cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes and oxidative stress. Therefore, caution should be exercised when using BR in therapeutic applications to ensure the safe and appropriate utilization of its potential benefits while minimizing any potential risks.

CONCLUSIONS

To sum up, BR, its compounds, and its based traditional Chinese medicine are effective in liver diseases through multiple targets, multiple pathways, and multiple effects. Advances in pharmacological and toxicological investigations of BR and its bio-active components in the future will provide further contributions to the discovery of novel therapeutics for liver diseases.

Saikosaponin d protects pancreatic acinar cells against cerulein-induced pyroptosis through alleviating mitochondrial damage and inhibiting cGAS-STING pathway

Acute pancreatitis represents an inflammatory disease featuring pancreatic necrosis and inflammation. Inflammatory injury of pancreatic acinar cells (PACs) is critically involved in the initiation and progression of acute pancreatitis. Pyroptosis, a new kind of programmed cell death concomitant with a low-grade inflammatory reaction, plays a function in acute pancreatitis pathology. It is unclear whether saikosaponin d (SSd), a pharmacologically active natural product, could protect PACs by regulating pyroptosis. Here, we established a PAC injury model in vitro using cerulein to treat AR42J cells. SSd restored viability and proliferation and lowered the release of pancreatic enzymes and inflammatory interleukins in cerulein-treated AR42J cells. Cerulein-induced pyroptosis was evidenced by typical ultrastructural changes and NLRP3/caspase-1 activation in AR42J cells, but SSd attenuated cerulein-induced pyroptosis and inhibited NLRP3/caspase-1 pathway. Mechanically, SSd reduced mitochondrial damage and mtDNA release, and blocked cGAS-STING signaling in AR42J cells treated with cerulein, contributing to the inhibition of NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis. Furthermore, SSd abolished cerulein-elevated oxidative stress in AR42J cells, leading to the mitigation of mitochondrial damage and inhibition of cGAS-STING signaling and pyroptosis. In conclusion, SSd protected PACs against cerulein-induced pyroptosis by alleviating mitochondrial damage and inhibiting the cGAS-STING pathway, and it could be a therapeutic candidate for acute pancreatitis.

Saikosaponin D mitigate pilocarpine-induced astrocyte injury by regulating the NLRP3/caspase-1 signaling pathway

Studies have shown that saikosaponin D (SSD) has favorable neurotherapeutic effects. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the efficacy and possible molecular mechanisms of SSD on pilocarpine (PP)-induced astrocyte injury. Primary astrocytes were isolated from juvenile rats and identified using immunofluorescence. The cells were treated with PP and/or SSD for 6 h and 12 h, respectively, followed by measurement of their viability through 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Next, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to measure the expression levels of Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), C3, S100 calcium binding protein A10 (S100a10), pentraxin 3 (Ptx3), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and RAG in astrocytes after different treatments. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and biochemical tests were utilized to evaluate the level of inflammatory factors [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)] secreted by cells and the content of oxidative stress-related factors (malondialdehyde [MDA] and glutathione [GSH]) or enzyme activity (catalase [CAT] and glutathione peroxidase [GPX]) in cells. The JC-1 mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) fluorescence probe was used to measure the MMP in astrocytes. Additionally, western blot was applied to test the expression of proteins related to the nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)/caspase-1 signaling pathway. PP treatment (1 mM) induced cell injury by significantly reducing the viability of astrocytes and expression of cellular markers. SSD treatment (4 μM) had no toxicity to astrocytes. Besides, SSD (4 μM) treatment could significantly up-regulate the cell viability and marker expression of PP-induced astrocytes. Furthermore, SSD could be employed to inhibit inflammation (reduce IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α levels) and oxidative stress (decrease MDA level, elevate GSH level, the activity of CAT and GPX), and ameliorate mitochondrial dysfunction (upregulate JC-1 ratio) in PP-induced astrocytes. Moreover, further mechanism exploration revealed that SSD treatment significantly reduced the activity of the NLRP3/caspase-1 signaling pathway activated by PP induction. SSD increased cell viability, inhibited inflammation and oxidative stress response, and ameliorated mitochondrial dysfunction in PP-induced astrocyte injury model, thus playing a neuroprotective role. The mechanism of SSD may be related to the inhibition of the NLRP3/caspase-1 inflammasome.

Saikosaponin D alleviates inflammatory response of osteoarthritis and mediates autophagy via elevating microRNA-199-3p to target transcription Factor-4

OBJECTIVE

This study was to investigate the underlying mechanism by which Saikosaponin D (SSD) mitigates the inflammatory response associated with osteoarthritis (OA) and regulates autophagy through upregulation of microRNA (miR)-199-3p and downregulation of transcription Factor-4 (TCF4).

METHODS

A mouse OA model was established. Mice were intragastrically administered with SSD (0, 5, 10 μmol/L) or injected with miR-199-3p antagomir into the knee. Then, pathological changes in cartilage tissues were observed. Normal chondrocytes and OA chondrocytes were isolated and identified. Chondrocytes were treated with SSD and/or transfected with oligonucleotides or plasmid vectors targeting miR-199-3p and TCF4. Cell viability, apoptosis, inflammation, and autophagy were assessed. miR-199-3p and TCF4 expressions were measured, and their targeting relationship was analyzed.

RESULTS

In in vivo experiments, SSD ameliorated cartilage histopathological damage, decreased inflammatory factor content and promoted autophagy in OA mice. miR-199-3p expression was downregulated and TCF4 expression was upregulated in cartilage tissues of OA mice. miR-199-3p expression was upregulated and TCF4 expression was downregulated after SSD treatment. Downregulation of miR-199-3p attenuated the effect of SSD on OA mice. In in vitro experiments, SSD inhibited the inflammatory response and promoted autophagy in OA chondrocytes. Downregulation of miR-199-3p attenuated the effect of SSD on OA chondrocytes. In addition, upregulation of miR-199-3p alone inhibited inflammatory responses and promoted autophagy in OA chondrocytes. miR-199-3p targeted TCF4. Upregulation of TCF4 attenuated the effects of miR-199-3p upregulation on OA chondrocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

SSD alleviates inflammatory response and mediates autophagy in OA via elevating miR-199-3p to target TCF4.

Tiaogan Jiejiu Tongluo Formula attenuated alcohol-induced chronic liver injury by regulating lipid metabolism in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tiaogan Jiejiu Tongluo Formula (TJTF), a traditional Chinese medicine formula, is modified from the well-known ancient prescription Danzhi-Xiaoyao Powder (DXP). Owing to its ability to regulate liver, strengthen spleen, detoxicating, and dredge collaterals in Chinese medicine, TJTF is usually used to treat anxiety, hypertension, alcoholic fatty liver disease in clinical application. However, the protective effect and potential molecular mechanism of TJTF on alcoholic liver injury has not fully been clarified.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To explore the effect of TJTF on chronic alcoholic liver injury and figure out whether its effects were due to the regulation of lipid metabolism.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

75 male SD rats were divided into the following five groups, control group, EtOH group, TJTF high dose group, TJTF low dose group and silybin group. Then a chronic alcoholic liver injury model was established by increasing concentration of 56% ethanol in rats. The rats in each TJTF group were given the corresponding dose of TJTF, the rats in the silybin group were given silybin, the rats in the control group and the EtOH group were given distilled water by gavage, once a day for 8 consecutive weeks. The components of TJTF were analyzed by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS. Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) was used to assess the severity of liver injury. in the pathological examination. Periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) and oil red O staining were used to evaluate the degree of the liver glycogen accumulation and lipid deposition, respectively. The serum ALT, AST, T-CHO, TG, LDL-C, ADH, HDL-C, and ALDH levels as well as liver tissue GSH, MDA, and SOD levels were analyzed in rats. Immunohistochemistry and western blotting were used to detect lipid metabolism-related proteins expressed in rat liver.

RESULTS

TJTF significantly alleviated the chronic liver injury caused by alcohol in rats, and enhanced liver function. TJTF significantly decreased AST, ALT, ADH levels and increased ALDH level of serum, and increased GSH, SOD levels and decreased MDA level of liver tissue. In addition, TJTF significantly decreased the serum T-CHO, TG and LDL-C levels and increased HDL-C level in chronic alcoholic liver injury rats by regulating the expression of lipid metabolism associated proteins including p-LKB1, p-AMPKα, p-ACC, FAS, HMGCR, SREBP-1c, PPARα and CPT-1A. The results of western blot and immunohistochemical staining confirmed that TJTF can inhibit lipid production and promote fatty acid oxidation in the liver tissue of chronic alcoholic liver injury rats by activating the LKB1-AMPKα axis and then downregulating the protein expressions of p-ACC, FAS, HMGCR and SREBP-1c, as well as promoting the protein expressions of PPARα and CPT-1A. Meanwhile, TJTF also increased the glycogen content of liver and alleviated the liver damage.

CONCLUSION

According to current research, TJTF is effective in treating chronic liver damage induced by alcohol in rats. Additionally, TJTF exhibits the protective benefits by modulating LKB1-AMPKα signal axis, which in turn inhibits the synthesis of lipids and promotes the oxidation of fatty acids.

Traditional herbs: mechanisms to combat cellular senescence

Cellular senescence plays a very important role in the ageing of organisms and age-related diseases that increase with age, a process that involves physiological, structural, biochemical and molecular changes in cells. In recent years, it has been found that the active ingredients of herbs and their natural products can prevent and control cellular senescence by affecting telomerase activity, oxidative stress response, autophagy, mitochondrial disorders, DNA damage, inflammatory response, metabolism, intestinal flora, and other factors. In this paper, we review the research information on the prevention and control of cellular senescence in Chinese herbal medicine through computer searches of PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and CNKI databases.

Targeting inflammasome pathway by polyphenols as a strategy for pancreatitis, gastrointestinal and liver diseases management: an updated review

Obesity, pancreatitis, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal (GI), and liver diseases have all been linked to the Western lifestyle, characterized by increased unhealthy food consumption and decreased physical activity. Besides obesity and pancreatitis, many GI and liver diseases are associated with inflammation. Inflammasomes are multi-protein complexes that mediate acute and restorative inflammatory pathways. However, many aberrations in inflammasome activity originate from shifts in dietary habits. Evidence reveals that dietary polyphenols effectively modulate inflammasome-associated dysfunctions. With a focus on pancreatitis, GI, and liver disorders, this review set out to provide the most relevant evidence for the therapeutic impact of polyphenols via the regulation of the inflammasome pathway. Overall, flavonoid and non-flavonoid polyphenols maintain intestinal eubiosis, downregulate NLRP3 inflammasome canonical pathway, and restore redox status via upregulating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling. These effects at the level of the intestine, the liver, and the pancreas are associated with decreased systemic levels of key pro-inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6.

Castanopsis sieboldii Extract Alleviates Acute Liver Injury by Antagonizing Inflammasome-Mediated Pyroptosis

Castanopsis sieboldii (CS), a subtropical species, was reported to have antioxidant and antibacterial effects. However, the anti-inflammatory effects of CS have not been studied. This study aimed to investigate whether the 70% ethanol extract of the CS leaf (CSL3) inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory responses and LPS and ATP-induced pyroptosis in macrophages. CSL3 treatment inhibited NO release and iNOS expression in LPS-stimulated cells. CSL3 antagonized NF-κB and AP-1 activation, which was due to MAPK (p38, ERK, and JNK) inhibition. CSL3 successfully decreased NLRP3 inflammasome activation and increased IL-1β expression. CSL3 treatment diminished LPS and ATP-induced pore formation in GSDMD. The in vivo effect of CSL3 on acute liver injury was evaluated in a CCl4-treated mouse model. CCl4 treatment increased the activity of serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, which decreased by CSL3. In addition, CCl4-induced an increase in TNF-α, and IL-6 levels decreased by CSL3 treatment. Furthermore, we verified that the CCl4-induced inflammasome and pyroptosis-related gene expression in liver tissue and release of IL-1β into serum were suppressed by CSL3 treatment. Our results suggest that CSL3 protects against acute liver injury by inhibiting inflammasome formation and pyroptosis.

Pharmacological properties and derivatives of saikosaponins-a review of recent studies

OBJECTIVES

Saikosaponins (SSs) constitute a class of medicinal monomers characterised by a triterpene tricyclic structure. Despite their potential therapeutic effects for various pathological conditions, the underlying mechanisms of their actions have not been systematically analysed. Here, we mainly review the important anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antiviral mechanisms underlying SS actions.

METHODS

Information from multiple scientific databases, such as PubMed, the Web of Science, and Google Scholar, was collected between 2018 and 2023. The search term used was saikosaponin.

KEY FINDINGS

Numerous studies have shown that Saikosaponin A exerts anti-inflammatory effects by modulating cytokine and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and lipid metabolism. Moreover, saikosaponin D exerts antitumor effects by inhibiting cell proliferation and inducing apoptosis and autophagy, and the antiviral mechanisms of SSs, especially against SARS-CoV-2, have been partially revealed. Interestingly, an increasing body of experimental evidence suggests that SSs show the potential for use as anti-addiction, anxiolytic, and antidepressant treatments, and therefore, the related molecular mechanisms warrant further study.

CONCLUSIONS

An increasing amount of data have indicated diverse SS pharmacological properties, indicating crucial clues for future studies and the production of novel saikosaponin-based anti-inflammatory, efficacious anticancer, and anti-novel-coronavirus agents with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Development of trisiloxane surfactant vesicles ultrasonic extraction method combined with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the rapid differentiation of Bupleuri Radix based on metabolomics

INTRODUCTION

Due to the variety, chemical composition and complex structure, the quality control of Bupleuri Radix (BR) is a challenging task. There are still many trace compounds in BR that are difficult to extract and detect.

OBJECTIVE

To develop an innovative method of trisiloxane surfactant vesicles ultrasonic extraction (TSVUE) combined with ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry for the identification from Bupleurum chinense DC. (BC) to Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd (BS) based on metabolomics.

METHODS

Based on extraction effect for BR, five different types of surfactants vesicles were prepared and compared. Then, a single-factor test and a response surface methodology study were adopted to obtain the optimal conditions for the surfactant vesicles ultrasonic extraction method. Finally, a non-targeted metabolomics method with information dependent acquisition mode was performed to analyse differential metabolites in BC and BS.

RESULTS

Sugar-based surfactant containing trisiloxane [N-3-propyl-methyltrisiloxane-N-glucoheptonamne (Si(3)N-GHA)] displayed higher extraction efficiency compared to other types of surfactants when it comes to being used in pretreatment methods. And a TSVUE method was established and optimised. In total, 131 constituents were identified in two BR herbs, of which 35 were unreported, and 11 were characterised as chemical markers.

CONCLUSIONS

This method provides promising perspectives for rapidly identifying trace compounds in complex systems of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), as well as for laying the foundation in the identification of similar herbs from the same species. Meanwhile, these findings serve as a promising application of trisiloxane surfactant vesicles in the extraction field of TCM.

Saikosaponin A and D attenuate skeletal muscle atrophy in chronic kidney disease by reducing oxidative stress through activation of PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 pathway

BACKGROUND

Skeletal muscle atrophy in chronic kidney disease (CKD) leads to a decline in quality of life and increased risk of morbidity and mortality. We have obtained evidence that oxidative stress is essential in the progression of CKD-related muscle atrophy. Whether Saikosaponin A and D, two emerging antioxidants extracted from Bupleurum chinense DC, alleviate muscle atrophy remains to be further studied. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects and mechanisms of these two components on CKD complicated with muscle atrophy.

METHODS

In this research, muscle dystrophy model was established using 5/6 nephrectomized mice in vivo and in vitro with Dexamethasone (Dex)-managed C2C12 myotubes.

RESULTS

The results of RNA-sequencing showed that exposure to Dex affected the antioxidant activity, catalytic activity and enzyme regulator activity of C2C12 cells. According to KEGG analysis, the largest numbers of differentially expressed genes detected were enriched in the PI3K/AKT pathway. In vivo, Saikosaponin A and D remain renal function, cross-section size, fiber-type composition and anti-inflammatory ability. These two components suppressed the expression of MuRF-1 and enhanced the expression of MyoD and Dystrophin. In addition, Saikosaponin A and D maintained redox balance by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes while inhibiting the excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, Saikosaponin A and D stimulated PI3K/AKT and its downstream Nrf2 pathway in CKD mice. The effects of Saikosaponin A and D on increasing the inner diameter of C2C12 myotube, reducing oxidative stress and enhancing expression of p-AKT, p-mTOR, p70S6K, Nrf2 and HO-1 proteins were observed in vitro. Importantly, we verified that these protective effects could be significantly reversed by inhibiting PI3K and knocking out Nrf2.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, Saikosaponin A and D improve CKD-induced muscle atrophy by reducing oxidative stress through the PI3K/AKT/Nrf2 pathway.

Xiao Chai Hu Tang alleviates the pancreatic tumorigenesis via improving the mtDNA N6-Methyladenine modification mediated mitochondrial dysfunction in Syrian hamster model

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN) is the most common precursor lesion of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), which is a highly malignant tumor and lack of effective treatment. Although Xiao Chai Hu Tang (XCHT) has a good therapeutic effect on pancreatic cancer patients with advanced stage, the effect and mechanism of XCHT remains unclear in pancreatic tumorigenesis.

PURPOSE

To assess the therapeutic effects of XCHT on the malignant transformation from PanIN to PDAC and to reveal its mechanisms of pancreatic tumorigenesis.

METHODS

Syrian golden hamster were induced by N-Nitrosobis (2-oxopropyl) amine (BOP) to establish the pancreatic tumorigenesis model. The morphological changes of pancreatic tissue were observed by H&E and Masson staining; the Gene ontology (GO) analysis the transcriptional profiling changes; the mitochondrial ATP generation, mitochondrial redox status, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) N6-methyladenine (6mA) level and relative mtDNA genes expressions were examined. In addition, immunofluorescence detect the cell localization of 6mA in human pancreatic cancer PANC1 cell. Using the TCGA database, the prognostic effect of mtDNA 6mA demethylation ALKBH1 expression on pancreatic cancer patients was analyzed.

RESULTS

We confirmed the mtDNA 6mA levels were gradually increased with the mitochondrial dysfunction in PanINs progression. XCHT showed the effect to inhibit the occurrence and development of pancreatic cancer in Syrian hamster pancreatic tumorigenesis model. In addition, the lack of ALKBH1 mediated mtDNA 6mA increase, mtDNA coded genes down-expression and abnormal redox status were rescued by XCHT.

CONCLUSIONS

ALKBH1/mtDNA 6mA mediated mitochondrial dysfunction to induce the occurrence and progression of pancreatic cancer. XCHT can improve ALKBH1 expression and mtDNA 6mA level, regulate the oxidative stress and expression of mtDNA coded genes. This study investigated a new molecular mechanism of pancreatic tumorigenesis, and revealed the therapeutic efficacy of XCHT in pancreatic tumorigenesis for the first time.

Scutellarin prevents acute alcohol-induced liver injury via inhibiting oxidative stress by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and inhibiting inflammation by regulating the AKT, p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathways

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is the most frequent liver disease worldwide, resulting in severe harm to personal health and posing a serious burden to public health. Based on the reported antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacities of scutellarin (SCU), this study investigated its protective role in male BALB/c mice with acute alcoholic liver injury after oral administration (10, 25, and 50 mg/kg). The results indicated that SCU could lessen serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels and improve the histopathological changes in acute alcoholic liver; it reduced alcohol-induced malondialdehyde (MDA) content and increased glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity. Furthermore, SCU decreased tumor necrosis factor-‍α (TNF-‍α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-‍1β messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels, weakened inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity, and inhibited nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)‍-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation. Mechanistically, SCU suppressed cytochrome P450 family 2 subfamily E member 1 (CYP2E1) upregulation triggered by alcohol, increased the expression of oxidative stress-related nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) pathways, and suppressed the inflammation-related degradation of inhibitor of nuclear factor-‍κB (NF-‍κB)‍-‍α (IκBα) as well as activation of NF‍-‍κB by mediating the protein kinase B (AKT) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. These findings demonstrate that SCU protects against acute alcoholic liver injury via inhibiting oxidative stress by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and suppressing inflammation by regulating the AKT, p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathways.

Study on the mechanism of acute liver injury protection in Rhubarb anthraquinone by metabolomics based on UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

As a traditional Chinese medicine, rhubarb has been used in a variety of liver diseases and it is widely used in clinic to prevent and treat acute liver injury. Anthraquinone, as the main medicinal component of rhubarb, can reverse the further development of liver fibrosis caused by acute liver injury. In this study, metabonomics was used to explore the mechanism of different doses of rhubarb anthraquinone on acute liver injury in rats. Rhubarb anthraquinone was administered intragastric to rats at doses of 3.9, 7.8 and 15.6 mg/kg, respectively, for 7 days, and then 30% CCl4 was injected intraperitoneally at the dose of 1 ml/kg to replicate the acute liver injury model. The biochemical indicators content of ALT, AST, ALP, γ-GT, TG, TC, LDL, HDL in serum and GSH, Hyp, SOD, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8 in liver tissue extract were tested respectively, and liver tissue was histopathologically analysis. At the same time, UPLC-Q-TOF-MS combined with non-targeted metabolomics were used to study the metabolites and metabolic pathways of rhubarb anthraquinone in treating acute liver injury. Compared with normal rats, the contents of ALT, AST, ALP, TG, TC, LDL, γ-GT in serum and Hyp, MDA, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α in the liver tissue extract were significantly increased in model rats (p < 0.05, p < 0.01), and the content of HDL in the serum was significantly decreased (p < 0.05); the activities of GSH and SOD in liver tissue extract were also significantly decreased (p < 0.05). After administration of rhubarb anthraquinone, compared with the model group, with the increase of dosage, some biochemical indexes showed opposite changes, and gradually approached to normal rats. 12 different metabolites were identified by metabonomics, and the biosynthesis and metabolism of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan, the metabolism of amino sugars, nucleotide sugars and pyrimidines metabolism, and the biosynthesis of steroid hormone were identified based on the biomarker analysis. Based on the biochemical analysis and metabonomics analysis of rats with acute liver injury treated with different doses of rhubarb anthraquinone, combined with histopathological observation, the results show that the protective effect of rhubarb anthraquinone on acute liver injury is related to the dosage; Meanwhile, the metabolic pathway analysis suggested that rhubarb anthraquinone alleviate acute liver injury by regulating inflammation, oxidative stress and fibrosis disorders. This study explained the therapeutic effect of rhubarb anthraquinone on acute liver injury from both material basis and action pathway, and provided safe and effective research ideas for clinical application of rhubarb.

Polysaccharide of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz alleviate lipopolysaccharide-stimulated liver inflammation injury of goslings through miR-223/NLRP3 axis

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) infection could cause severe liver inflammation and lead to liver damage, even death. Previous studies have shown that polysaccharide of Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (PAMK) could protect liver from inflammation caused by LPS in mice. However, whether PAMK could alleviate liver inflammatory injury in other animals with LPS is still unknown. For evaluating whether PAMK could alleviate liver inflammatory injury in goslings with LPS, a total of 80 healthy 1-day old Magang goslings were randomly divided into 4 groups (control group, PAMK group, LPS group, and PAMK+LPS group). Goslings in control group and LPS group were fed with basal diet, and goslings in PAMK group and PAMK+LPS group were fed basal diet supplemented with 400 mg/kg PAMK to the end of trial. On 24 d of age, goslings in the control group and PAMK group were intraperitoneal injected 0.5 mL normal saline, and goslings in LPS and PAMK+LPS groups were intraperitoneal injected with LPS at 5 mg/kg BW. The serum and liver samples were collected for further analysis after treatment of LPS at 6, 12, 24, and 48 h. Furthermore, the hepatocytes were extracted from goose embryo to measure the expression of the key genes of miR-223/NLRP3 axis. The results showed that PAMK pretreatment could maintain normal cell morphology of liver, alleviate the enhanced levels of biochemical indexes ALT and AST, decrease the levels of IL-1β and IL-18, increase the relative mRNA expression of miR-223, and decrease the expression of NLRP3, Caspase-1, and cleaved Caspase-1 in liver and hepatocytes of goslings induced by LPS. These results indicated that PAMK could relieve inflammatory liver tissue damage after LPS treatment and downregulate the level of inflammation factors via miR-223/NLRP3 axis, thus playing a liver protective role in liver inflammation injury in goslings.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Mitochondria-Targeted Antioxidant Mito-TEMPO against Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Liver Injury in Mouse

The liver is vulnerable to sepsis, and sepsis-induced liver injury is closely associated with poor survival of sepsis patients. Studies have found that the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is the major cause of oxidative stress, which is the main pathogenic factor for the progression of septic liver injury. The mitochondria are a major source of ROS. Mito-TEMPO is a mitochondria-specific superoxide scavenger. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of Mito-TEMPO on lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced sepsis mice. We found that Mito-TEMPO pretreatment inhibited inflammation, attenuated LPS-induced liver injury, and enhanced the antioxidative capability in septic mice, as evidenced by the decreased MDA content and the increased SOD activity. In addition, Mito-TEMPO restored mitochondrial size and improved mitochondrial function. Finally, we found that the levels of pyroptosis-related proteins in the liver of LPS-treated mice were lower after pretreatment with Mito-TEMPO. The mechanisms could be related to Mito-TEMPO enhanced antioxidative capability and improved mitochondrial function, which reflects the ability to neutralize ROS.

Saikosaponin d Alleviates Liver Fibrosis by Negatively Regulating the ROS/NLRP3 Inflammasome Through Activating the ERβ Pathway

Background and aims: Saikosaponin d (SSd) has a steroidal structure and significant anti-inflammatory effects. The purpose of this study was to explore the mechanism underlying SSd’s inhibitory effects on liver fibrosis.

Methods: Wild-type and estrogen receptor knockout (ERKO) mice were treated with CCl₄ to establish liver fibrosis mouse models. The effects of SSd on hepatic fibrogenesis were studied in these mouse models. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) were activated by H₂O₂ to investigate the potential molecular mechanisms. The establishment of the models and the degrees of inflammation and liver tissue fibrosis were evaluated by detecting changes in serum liver enzymes and liver histopathology. The expression of α-SMA and TGF-β1 was determined by immunohistochemistry. The expression and significance of NLRP3 inflammasome proteins were explored by RT-PCR and Western blotting analyses. The mitochondrial ROS-related indexes were evaluated by MitoSOX Red.

Results: In wild-type and ERKO mice treated with CCl₄, the fluorescence expression of mitochondrial ROS was up-regulated, while the mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP content were decreased, suggesting that the mitochondria were damaged. In addition, the expression of NLRP3 inflammatory bodies and fibrosis markers (α-SMA, TGF-β, TIMP-1, MMP-2, and Vimentin) in liver tissue increased. Furthermore, the above indexes showed the same expression trend in activated HSCs. In addition, the peripheral serum ALT and AST levels increased in CCl₄-induced liver injury model mice. And HE staining showed a large number of inflammatory cell infiltration in the liver of model mice. Picric acid-Sirius staining and Masson staining showed that there was significant collagen fibrous tissue deposition in mice liver sections. IHC and WB detection confirmed that the expression of α-SMA and TGF-β1 increased. Liver fibrosis scores were also elevated. Then, after SSd intervention, the expression of ROS in wild-type mice and αERKO mice decreased, mitochondrial membrane potential recovered, ATP level increased, NLRP3 inflammasome and fibrosis indexes decreased, liver enzyme levels decreased, and liver pathology showed liver inflammation. The damage and collagen deposition were significantly relieved, the expression of α-SMA and TGF-β1 was decreased, and the fibrosis score was also decreased. More importantly, the effect of SSd in alleviating liver injury and liver fibrosis had no effect on βERKO mice.

Conclusion: SSd alleviated liver fibrosis by negatively regulating the ROS/NLRP3 inflammasome through activating the ERβ pathway. By establishing liver fibrosis models using wild-type and ERKO mice, we demonstrated that SSd could alleviate liver fibrosis by inhibiting the ROS/NLRP3 inflammasome axis through activating the ERβ pathway.

NLRP3 Inflammasome and Pyroptosis in Liver Pathophysiology: The Emerging Relevance of Nrf2 Inducers

Inflammasomes, particularly the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, apparently serve as crucial regulators of the inflammatory response through the activation of Caspase-1 and induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and pyroptotic cell death. Pyroptosis is a type of programmed cell death mediated by Caspase-1 cleavage of Gasdermin D and the insertion of its N-terminal fragment into the plasma membrane, where it forms pores, enabling the release of different pro-inflammatory mediators. Pyroptosis is considered not only a pro-inflammatory pathway involved in liver pathophysiology but also an important pro-fibrotic mediator. Diverse molecular mechanisms linking oxidative stress, inflammasome activation, pyroptosis, and the progression of liver pathologies have been documented. Numerous studies have indicated the protective effects of several antioxidants, with the ability to induce nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activity on liver inflammation and fibrosis. In this review, we have summarised recent studies addressing the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome and pyroptosis in the pathogenesis of various hepatic diseases, highlighting the potential application of Nrf2 inducers in the prevention of pyroptosis as liver protective compounds.

Inhibition of Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Bone Loss by Saikosaponin D is Associated with Regulation of the RANKL/RANK Pathway

Background

Osteolytic diseases such as osteoporosis are featured with accelerated osteoclast differentiation and strong bone resorption. Considering the complications and other limitations of current drug treatments, it is necessary to develop a safer and more reliable drug to deal with osteoclast-related diseases. Saikosaponin D (SSD) is the active extract of Bupleurum, which has anti-inflammation, anti-tumor and liver protection functions. However, the role of SSD in regulating the differentiation and function of osteoclasts is not clear.

Purpose

To explore whether SSD could prevent osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption induced by M-CSF and RANKL, and further evaluate the potential therapeutic properties of SSD in LPS-induced inflammatory bone loss mouse models.

Methods

BMMs were cultured in complete medium stimulated by RANKL with different concentrations of SSD. TRAP staining, bone resorption determination, qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence and Western blotting were performed. A mouse model of LPS-induced calvarial bone loss was established and treated with different doses of SSD. The excised calvaria bones were used for TRAP staining, micro-CT scan and histological analysis.

Results

SSD inhibited the formation and bone resorption of osteoclasts induced by RANKL in vitro. SSD suppressed LPS-induced inflammatory bone loss in vivo.

Conclusion

SSD inhibited osteoclastogenesis and LPS-induced osteolysis in mice both which served as a new potential agent for the treatment of osteoclast-related conditions.

Saikosaponin-d alleviates hepatic fibrosis through regulating GPER1/autophagy signaling

BACKGROUND

Hepatic fibrosis is the final pathway of chronic liver disease characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM), which eventually develop into cirrhosis and liver cancer. Emerging studies demonstrated that Saikosaponin-d (SSd) exhibits a protective role in liver fibrosis. However, the mechanism underlying anti-liver fibrosis of SSd in vivo and in vitro remains unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) were used for creating liver fibrosis model in vitro and in vivo, respectively. The role of SSd in regulating liver fibrosis was assessed through Sirius red and Masson staining, and IHC assay. We found that SSd attenuated remarkably CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis as evidenced by decreased collagen level, and decreased expression of fibrotic markers Col 1 and α-SMA. Meanwhile, SSd repressed autophagy activation as suggested by decreased BECN1 expression and increased p62 expression. Compared with HSCs from CCl₄-treated group, the primary HSCs from SSd-treated mice exhibited a marked inactivation of autophagy. Mechanistically, SSd treatment enhanced the expression of GPER1 in primary HSCs and in TGF-β-treated LX-2 cells. GPER1 agonist G1 repressed autophagy activation, whereas GPER1 antagonist G15 activated autophagy and G15 also damaged the function of SSd on suppressing autophagy, leading to subsequent increased levels of fibrotic marker level in LX-2 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight that SSd alleviates hepatic fibrosis by regulating GPER1/autophagy pathway.

The Ameliorative Effects of Saikosaponin in Thioacetamide-Induced Liver Injury and Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Mice

Liver disorders are a major health concern. Saikosaponin-d (SSd) is an effective active ingredient extracted from Bupleurum falcatum, a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, its hepatoprotective properties and underlying mechanisms are unknown. We investigated the effects and underlying mechanisms of SSd treatment for thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver injury and high-fat-diet (HFD)-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in male C57BL/6 mice. The SSd group showed significantly higher food intake, body weight, and hepatic antioxidative enzymes (catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD)) and lower hepatic cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21) compared with controls, as well as reduced expression of inflammation-related genes (nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)) messenger RNA (mRNA). In NAFLD mice, SSd reduced serum ALT, AST, triglycerides, fatty acid–binding protein 4 (FABP4) and sterol regulatory element–binding protein 1 (SREBP1) mRNA, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress-related proteins (phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2α subunit (p-eIF2α), activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP). SSd has a hepatoprotective effect in liver injury by suppressing inflammatory responses and acting as an antioxidant.

Saikosaponin-d protects against liver fibrosis by regulating Estrogen receptor-β/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway

Liver fibrosis is the ultimate common pathway in most types of chronic liver damage characterized by imbalance of extracellular matrix degradation and synthesis. Saikosaponin-d (SSd) possesses anti-inflammatory and anti-liver fibrosis effects. However, the underlying mechanism of SSd in repressing hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation remains unclear. Here we found that SSd alleviated remarkably carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis, as evidenced by decreased collagen level and profibrotic markers (COl1a1 and α-smooth muscle actin (SMA)) expression. SSd repressed CCl4-induced NOD-like receptor family pyrin-domain-containng-3 (NLRP3) activation in fibrotic livers, as suggested by decreased level of NLRP3, IL-18, and IL-β. The primary HSCs of CCl4 mice exhibited a significant increase in profibrotic markers expression and NLRP3 activation, but SSd treatment reversed the effect. SSd also repressed TGF-β-induced profibrotic markers expression and NLRP3 activation in vitro. Mechanistically, TGF-β decreased the expression of Estrogen receptor-β (ERβ) in HSCs, whereas SSd treatment reversed the effect. ERβ inhibition enhanced NLRP3 activation in HSCs. More important, ERβ or NLRP3 inhibition destroyed partially the function of SSd on anti-liver fibrosis. In summary, the current data suggest that SSd prevents hepatic fibrosis through regulating ERβ/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway, and suggest SSd as a potential agent for treating liver fibrosis.