1
|
Alejandro RJ, Holroyd CB. Hierarchical control over foraging behavior by anterior cingulate cortex. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 160:105623. [PMID: 38490499 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Foraging is a natural behavior that involves making sequential decisions to maximize rewards while minimizing the costs incurred when doing so. The prevalence of foraging across species suggests that a common brain computation underlies its implementation. Although anterior cingulate cortex is believed to contribute to foraging behavior, its specific role has been contentious, with predominant theories arguing either that it encodes environmental value or choice difficulty. Additionally, recent attempts to characterize foraging have taken place within the reinforcement learning framework, with increasingly complex models scaling with task complexity. Here we review reinforcement learning foraging models, highlighting the hierarchical structure of many foraging problems. We extend this literature by proposing that ACC guides foraging according to principles of model-based hierarchical reinforcement learning. This idea holds that ACC function is organized hierarchically along a rostral-caudal gradient, with rostral structures monitoring the status and completion of high-level task goals (like finding food), and midcingulate structures overseeing the execution of task options (subgoals, like harvesting fruit) and lower-level actions (such as grabbing an apple).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Clay B Holroyd
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Sazhin D, Dachs A, Smith DV. Meta-Analysis Reveals That Explore-Exploit Decisions are Dissociable by Activation in the Dorsal Lateral Prefrontal Cortex and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.21.563317. [PMID: 37961286 PMCID: PMC10634720 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.21.563317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Explore-exploit research has challenges in generalizability due to a limited theoretical basis of exploration and exploitation. Neuroimaging can help identify whether explore-exploit decisions use an opponent processing system to address this issue. Thus, we conducted a coordinate-based meta-analysis (N=23 studies) where we found activation in the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex during exploration versus exploitation, providing some evidence for opponent processing. However, the conjunction of explore-exploit decisions was associated with activation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, and anterior insula, suggesting that these brain regions do not engage in opponent processing. Further, exploratory analyses revealed heterogeneity in brain responses between task types during exploration and exploitation respectively. Coupled with results suggesting that activation in exploration and exploitation decisions is generally more similar than it is different suggests there remain significant challenges toward characterizing explore-exploit decision making. Nonetheless, dlPFC and ACC activation differentiate explore and exploit decisions and identifying these responses can help in targeted interventions aimed at manipulating these decisions.
Collapse
|
3
|
Lloyd A, Viding E, McKay R, Furl N. Understanding patch foraging strategies across development. Trends Cogn Sci 2023; 27:1085-1098. [PMID: 37500422 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Patch foraging is a near-ubiquitous behaviour across the animal kingdom and characterises many decision-making domains encountered by humans. We review how a disposition to explore in adolescence may reflect the evolutionary conditions under which hunter-gatherers foraged for resources. We propose that neurocomputational mechanisms responsible for reward processing, learning, and cognitive control facilitate the transition from exploratory strategies in adolescence to exploitative strategies in adulthood - where individuals capitalise on known resources. This developmental transition may be disrupted by psychopathology, as there is emerging evidence of biases in explore/exploit choices in mental health problems. Explore/exploit choices may be an informative marker for mental health across development and future research should consider this feature of decision-making as a target for clinical intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alex Lloyd
- Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London, WC1H 0AP, UK.
| | - Essi Viding
- Clinical, Educational, and Health Psychology, Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London, WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - Ryan McKay
- Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
| | - Nicholas Furl
- Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham Hill, Egham, TW20 0EX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Traner MR, Bromberg-Martin ES, Monosov IE. How the value of the environment controls persistence in visual search. PLoS Comput Biol 2021; 17:e1009662. [PMID: 34905548 PMCID: PMC8714092 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Classic foraging theory predicts that humans and animals aim to gain maximum reward per unit time. However, in standard instrumental conditioning tasks individuals adopt an apparently suboptimal strategy: they respond slowly when the expected value is low. This reward-related bias is often explained as reduced motivation in response to low rewards. Here we present evidence this behavior is associated with a complementary increased motivation to search the environment for alternatives. We trained monkeys to search for reward-related visual targets in environments with different values. We found that the reward-related bias scaled with environment value, was consistent with persistent searching after the target was already found, and was associated with increased exploratory gaze to objects in the environment. A novel computational model of foraging suggests that this search strategy could be adaptive in naturalistic settings where both environments and the objects within them provide partial information about hidden, uncertain rewards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. Traner
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Ethan S. Bromberg-Martin
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Ilya E. Monosov
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Pain Center, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Marzecová A, Kaiser LF, Maddah A. Neuromodulation of Foraging Decisions: The Role of Dopamine. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:660667. [PMID: 33927602 PMCID: PMC8076528 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.660667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Marzecová
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Luca F Kaiser
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Armin Maddah
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, Heinrich-Heine University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cash-Padgett T, Hayden B. Behavioural variability contributes to over-staying in patchy foraging. Biol Lett 2020; 16:20190915. [PMID: 32156171 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Foragers often systematically deviate from rate-maximizing choices in two ways: accuracy and precision. That is, they use suboptimal threshold values and also show variability in their application of those thresholds. We hypothesized that these biases are related and, more specifically, that foragers' widely known accuracy bias--over-staying--could be explained, at least in part, by their imprecision. To test this hypothesis, we analysed choices made by three rhesus macaques in a computerized patch foraging task. Confirming previously observed findings, we found high levels of variability. We then showed, through simulations, that this variability changed optimal thresholds, meaning that a forager aware of its own variability should increase its leaving threshold (i.e. over-stay) to increase performance. All subjects showed thresholds that were biased in the predicted direction. These results indicate that over-staying in patches may reflect, in part, an adaptation to behavioural variability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Cash-Padgett
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.,Center for Neuroengineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Benjamin Hayden
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.,Center for Neuroengineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| |
Collapse
|