Hemostatic disorders in a JAK2V617F-driven mouse model of myeloproliferative neoplasm

Exacerbation of thromboinflammation by JAK2V617F mutation worsens the prognosis of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis

ABSTRACT

Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (CVST) is an uncommon venous thromboembolic event accounting for <1% of strokes resulting in brain parenchymal injuries. JAK2V617F mutation, the most frequent driving mutation of myeloproliferative neoplasms, has been reported to be associated with worse clinical outcomes in patients with CVST. We investigated whether hematopoietic JAK2V617F expression predisposes to specific pathophysiological processes and/or worse prognosis after CVST. Using an in vivo mouse model of CVST, we analyzed clinical, biological, and imaging outcomes in mice with hematopoietic-restricted Jak2V617F expression, compared with wild-type Jak2 mice. In parallel, we studied a human cohort of JAK2V617F-positive or -negative CVST. Early after CVST, mice with hematopoietic Jak2V617F expression had increased adhesion of platelets and neutrophils in cerebral veins located in the vicinity of CVST. On day 1, Jak2V617F mice had a worse outcome characterized by significantly more frequent and severe intracranial hemorrhages (ICHs) and higher mortality rates. Peripheral neutrophil activation was enhanced, as indicated by higher circulating platelet-neutrophil aggregates, upregulated CD11b expression, and higher myeloperoxydase plasma level. Concurrently, immunohistological and brain homogenate analysis showed higher neutrophil infiltration and increased blood-brain barrier disruption. Similarly, patients with JAK2V617F-positive CVST tended to present higher thrombotic burden and had significantly higher systemic immune-inflammation index, a systemic thromboinflammatory marker, than patients who were JAK2V617F-negative. In mice with CVST, our study corroborates that Jak2V617F mutation leads to a specific pattern including increased thrombotic burden, ICH, and mortality. The exacerbated thromboinflammatory response, observed both in mice and patients positive for JAK2V617F, could contribute to hemorrhagic complications.

Neutrophil-specific expression of JAK2-V617F or CALRmut induces distinct inflammatory profiles in myeloproliferative neoplasia

BACKGROUND

Neutrophils play a crucial role in inflammation and in the increased thrombotic risk in myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). We have investigated how neutrophil-specific expression of JAK2-V617F or CALRdel re-programs the functions of neutrophils.

METHODS

Ly6G-Cre JAK2-V617F and Ly6G-Cre CALRdel mice were generated. MPN parameters as blood counts, splenomegaly and bone marrow histology were compared to wild-type mice. Megakaryocyte differentiation was investigated using lineage-negative bone marrow cells upon in vitro incubation with TPO/IL-1β. Cytokine concentrations in serum of mice were determined by Mouse Cytokine Array. IL-1α expression in various hematopoietic cell populations was determined by intracellular FACS analysis. RNA-seq to analyse gene expression of inflammatory cytokines was performed in isolated neutrophils from JAK2-V617F and CALR-mutated mice and patients. Bioenergetics of neutrophils were recorded on a Seahorse extracellular flux analyzer. Cell motility of neutrophils was monitored in vitro (time lapse microscopy), and in vivo (two-photon microscopy) upon creating an inflammatory environment. Cell adhesion to integrins, E-selectin and P-selection was investigated in-vitro. Statistical analysis was carried out using GraphPad Prism. Data are shown as mean ± SEM. Unpaired, two-tailed t-tests were applied.

RESULTS

Strikingly, neutrophil-specific expression of JAK2-V617F, but not CALRdel, was sufficient to induce pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1 in serum of mice. RNA-seq analysis in neutrophils from JAK2-V617F mice and patients revealed a distinct inflammatory chemokine signature which was not expressed in CALR-mutant neutrophils. In addition, IL-1 response genes were significantly enriched in neutrophils of JAK2-V617F patients as compared to CALR-mutant patients. Thus, JAK2-V617F positive neutrophils, but not CALR-mutant neutrophils, are pathogenic drivers of inflammation in MPN. In line with this, expression of JAK2-V617F or CALRdel elicited a significant difference in the metabolic phenotype of neutrophils, suggesting a stronger inflammatory activity of JAK2-V617F cells. Furthermore, JAK2-V617F, but not CALRdel, induced a VLA4 integrin-mediated adhesive phenotype in neutrophils. This resulted in reduced neutrophil migration in vitro and in an inflamed vessel. This mechanism may contribute to the increased thrombotic risk of JAK2-V617F patients compared to CALR-mutant individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our findings highlight genotype-specific differences in MPN-neutrophils that have implications for the differential pathophysiology of JAK2-V617F versus CALR-mutant disease.

Jak2 V617F clonal hematopoiesis promotes arterial thrombosis via platelet activation and cross talk

ABSTRACT

JAK2 V617F (JAK2VF) clonal hematopoiesis (CH) has been associated with atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease (CVD). We assessed the impact of Jak2VF CH on arterial thrombosis and explored the underlying mechanisms. A meta-analysis of 3 large cohort studies confirmed the association of JAK2VF with CVD and with platelet counts and adjusted mean platelet volume (MPV). In mice, 20% or 1.5% Jak2VF CH accelerated arterial thrombosis and increased platelet activation. Megakaryocytes in Jak2VF CH showed elevated proplatelet formation and release, increasing prothrombogenic reticulated platelet counts. Gp1ba-Cre-mediated expression of Jak2VF in platelets (VFGp1ba) increased platelet counts to a similar level as in 20% Jak2VF CH mice while having no effect on leukocyte counts. Like Jak2VF CH mice, VFGp1ba mice showed enhanced platelet activation and accelerated arterial thrombosis. In Jak2VF CH, both Jak2VF and wild-type (WT) platelets showed increased activation, suggesting cross talk between mutant and WT platelets. Jak2VF platelets showed twofold to threefold upregulation of COX-1 and COX-2, particularly in young platelets, with elevated cPLA2 activation and thromboxane A2 production. Compared with controls, conditioned media from activated Jak2VF platelets induced greater activation of WT platelets that was reversed by a thromboxane receptor antagonist. Low-dose aspirin ameliorated carotid artery thrombosis in VFGp1ba and Jak2VF CH mice but not in WT control mice. This study shows accelerated arterial thrombosis and platelet activation in Jak2VF CH with a major role of increased reticulated Jak2VF platelets, which mediate thromboxane cross talk with WT platelets and suggests a potential beneficial effect of aspirin in JAK2VF CH.

Multiomic profiling reveals metabolic alterations mediating aberrant platelet activity and inflammation in myeloproliferative neoplasms

Platelets from patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) exhibit a hyperreactive phenotype. Here, we found elevated P-selectin exposure and platelet-leukocyte aggregates indicating activation of platelets from essential thrombocythemia (ET) patients. Single-cell RNA-seq analysis of primary samples revealed significant enrichment of transcripts related to platelet activation, mTOR, and oxidative phosphorylation in ET patient platelets. These observations were validated via proteomic profiling. Platelet metabolomics revealed distinct metabolic phenotypes consisting of elevated ATP generation accompanied by increases in the levels of multiple intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, but lower α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) in MPN patients. Inhibition of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling significantly reduced metabolic responses and hyperreactivity in MPN patient platelets, while α-KG supplementation markedly reduced oxygen consumption and ATP generation. Ex vivo incubation of platelets from both MPN patients and Jak2 V617F-knockin mice with α-KG supplementation significantly reduced platelet activation responses. Oral α-KG supplementation of Jak2 V617F mice decreased splenomegaly and reduced hematocrit, monocyte, and platelet counts. Finally, α-KG treatment significantly decreased proinflammatory cytokine secretion from MPN CD14+ monocytes. Our results reveal a previously unrecognized metabolic disorder in conjunction with aberrant PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling that contributes to platelet hyperreactivity in MPN patients.

Platelets and neutrophils cooperate to induce increased neutrophil extracellular trap formation in JAK2V617F myeloproliferative neoplasms

BACKGROUND

Neutrophils participate in the pathogenesis of thrombosis through the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Thrombosis is the main cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). Recent studies have shown an increase in NET formation (NETosis) both in patients with JAK2V617F neutrophils and in mouse models, and reported the participation of NETosis in the pathophysiology of thrombosis in mice.

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated whether JAK2V617F neutrophils are sufficient to promote thrombosis or whether their cooperation with other blood cell types is necessary.

METHODS

NETosis was studied in PF4iCre;Jak2V617F/WT mice expressing JAK2V617F in all hematopoietic lineages, as occurs in MPNs, and in MRP8Cre;Jak2V617F/WT mice in which JAK2V617F is expressed only in leukocytes.

RESULTS

In PF4iCre;Jak2V617F/WT mice, an increase in NETosis and spontaneous lung thrombosis abrogated by DNAse administration were observed. The absence of spontaneous NETosis or lung thrombosis in MRP8Cre;Jak2V617F/WT mice suggested that mutated neutrophils alone are not sufficient to induce thrombosis. Ex vivo experiments demonstrated that JAK2V617F-mutated platelets trigger NETosis by JAK2V617F-mutated neutrophils. Aspirin treatment in PF4iCre;Jak2V617F/WT mice reduced NETosis and reduced lung thrombosis. In cytoreductive-therapy-free patients with MPN treated with aspirin, plasma NET marker concentrations were lower than that in patients with MPN not treated with aspirin.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates that JAK2V617F neutrophils alone are not sufficient to promote thrombosis; rather, platelets cooperate with neutrophils to promote NETosis in vivo. A new role for aspirin in thrombosis prevention in MPNs was also identified.

Practical management of the haemorrhagic complications of myeloproliferative neoplasms

Myeloproliferative neoplasms can be associated with bleeding manifestations which can cause significant morbidities. Although haematologists are aware of the likelihood of this complication in the setting of myeloproliferative neoplasms, it may often be overlooked especially in patients with no extreme elevation of blood counts and those with myelofibrosis. Acquired von Willebrand syndrome and platelet dysfunction are the two common diagnoses to be considered in this regard. In this review article, we discuss the mechanisms for the development of these rare bleeding disorders, their diagnosis and practical management.

Hematopoiesis of Indeterminate Potential and Atherothrombotic Risk

Hematopoiesis is the process of blood production, essential for the continued supply of immune cells and red blood cells. However, the proliferative nature of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) renders them susceptible to developing somatic mutations. HSCs carrying a mutation can gain a selective advantage over normal HSCs and result in hematological disorders. One such disorder is termed clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential (CHIP), a premalignant state associated with aging, where the mutant HSCs are responsible for producing a small portion of mature immune cells in the circulation and subsequently in tissues. People with CHIP have been shown to have an increased risk of mortality due to cardiovascular disease (CVD). Why this occurs is under rigorous investigation, but the majority of the studies to date have suggested that increased atherosclerosis is due to heightened inflammatory cytokine release from mutant lesional macrophages. However, given CHIP is driven by several mutations, other hematopoietic lineages can be altered to promote CVD. In this review we explore the relationship between mutations in genes causing CHIP and atherothrombotic disorders, along with potential mechanisms of enhanced clonal outgrowth and potential therapies and strategies to slow CHIP progression.

Thromboinflammation in Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPN)-A Puzzle Still to Be Solved

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), a group of malignant hematological disorders, occur as a consequence of somatic mutations in the hematopoietic stem cell compartment and show excessive accumulation of mature myeloid cells in the blood. A major cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients is the marked prothrombotic state leading to venous and arterial thrombosis, including myocardial infarction (MI), deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and strokes. Additionally, many MPN patients suffer from inflammation-mediated constitutional symptoms, such as fever, night sweats, fatigue, and cachexia. The chronic inflammatory syndrome in MPNs is associated with the up-regulation of various inflammatory cytokines in patients and is involved in the formation of the so-called MPN thromboinflammation. JAK2-V617F, the most prevalent mutation in MPNs, has been shown to activate a number of integrins on mature myeloid cells, including granulocytes and erythrocytes, which increase adhesion and drive venous thrombosis in murine knock-in/out models. This review aims to shed light on the current understanding of thromboinflammation, involvement of neutrophils in the prothrombotic state, plausible molecular mechanisms triggering the process of thrombosis, and potential novel therapeutic targets for developing effective strategies to reduce the MPN disease burden.

Thromboinflammation in Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPN)-A Puzzle Still to Be Solved

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), a group of malignant hematological disorders, occur as a consequence of somatic mutations in the hematopoietic stem cell compartment and show excessive accumulation of mature myeloid cells in the blood. A major cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients is the marked prothrombotic state leading to venous and arterial thrombosis, including myocardial infarction (MI), deep vein thrombosis (DVT), and strokes. Additionally, many MPN patients suffer from inflammation-mediated constitutional symptoms, such as fever, night sweats, fatigue, and cachexia. The chronic inflammatory syndrome in MPNs is associated with the up-regulation of various inflammatory cytokines in patients and is involved in the formation of the so-called MPN thromboinflammation. JAK2-V617F, the most prevalent mutation in MPNs, has been shown to activate a number of integrins on mature myeloid cells, including granulocytes and erythrocytes, which increase adhesion and drive venous thrombosis in murine knock-in/out models. This review aims to shed light on the current understanding of thromboinflammation, involvement of neutrophils in the prothrombotic state, plausible molecular mechanisms triggering the process of thrombosis, and potential novel therapeutic targets for developing effective strategies to reduce the MPN disease burden.

Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio is a novel predictor of venous thrombosis in polycythemia vera

We investigated the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) as a predictor of thrombosis in polycythemia vera (PV). After a median follow-up of 2.51 years, of 1508 PV patients enrolled in the ECLAP study, 82 and 84 developed arterial and venous thrombosis, respectively. Absolute counts of total leukocytes, neutrophils, lymphocytes, platelets, and the NLR were tested by generalized additive models (GAM) to evaluate their trend in continuous scale of thrombotic risk. Only for venous thrombosis, we showed that baseline absolute neutrophil and lymphocyte counts were on average respectively higher (median: 6.8 × 10⁹/L, p = 0.002) and lower (median: 1.4 × 10⁹/L, p = 0.001), leading to increased NLR values (median: 5.1, p = 0.002). In multivariate analysis, the risk of venous thrombosis was independently associated with previous venous events (HR = 5.48, p ≤ 0.001) and NLR values ≥5 (HR = 2.13, p = 0.001). Moreover, the relative risk in both low- and high-standard risk groups was almost doubled in the presence of NLR ≥ 5. These findings were validated in two Italian independent external cohorts (Florence, n = 282 and Rome, n = 175) of contemporary PV patients. Our data support recent experimental work that venous thrombosis is controlled by innate immune cells and highlight that NLR is an inexpensive and easily accessible prognostic biomarker of venous thrombosis.

Thrombotic and Hemorrhagic Issues Associated with Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

Thrombotic and hemorrhagic complications are related to a significant rate of morbidity and mortality in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), they are therefore called “thrombohemorrhagic” syndromes. Several clinical factors, such as age and presence of cardiovascular comorbidities are responsible for thrombotic complications. High blood counts, platelet alterations, presence of JAK2 mutation and possibly of other CHIP mutations such as TET2, DNMT3A, and ASXL1, procoagulant microparticles, NETs formation, endothelial activation and neo-angiogenesis are some of the parameters accounting for hypercoagulability in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms. Bleeding complications emerge as a result of platelet exhaustion. They can be also linked to a functional deficiency of von Willebrand factor, when platelet counts rise above 1000G/L. The mainstay of management consists on preventing hemostatic complications, by antiplatelet and/or anticoagulant treatment and myelosuppressive agents in high-risk patients.Circumstances related to a high thrombohemorrhagic risk, such as pregnancy and the perioperative period, prompt for specific management with regards to anticoagulation and myelosuppression treatment type. In order to apply a patient-specific treatment strategy, there is a need for a risk score assessment tool encompassing clinical parameters and hemostasis biomarkers.

Bleeding diathesis in mice lacking JAK2 in platelets

The tyrosine kinase JAK2 is a critical component of intracellular JAK/STAT cytokine signaling cascades that is prevalent in hematopoietic cells, such as hematopoietic stem cells and megakaryocytes (MKs). Individuals expressing the somatic JAK2 V617F mutation commonly develop myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) associated with venous and arterial thrombosis, a leading cause of mortality. The role of JAK2 in hemostasis remains unclear. We investigated the role of JAK2 in platelet hemostatic function using Jak2fl/fl Pf4-Cre (Jak2Plt-/-) mice lacking JAK2 in platelets and MKs. Jak2Plt-/- mice developed MK hyperplasia and splenomegaly associated with severe thrombocytosis and bleeding. This notion was supported by failure to occlude in a ferric chloride carotid artery injury model and by a cremaster muscle laser-induced injury assay, in which Jak2Plt-/- platelets failed to form stable thrombi. Jak2Plt-/- platelets formed thrombi poorly after adhesion to type 1 collagen under arterial shear rates. Jak2Plt-/- platelets spread poorly on collagen under static conditions or on fibrinogen in response to the collagen receptor GPVI-specific agonist, collagen-related peptide (CRP). After activation with collagen, CRP, or the CLEC-2 agonist rhodocytin, Jak2Plt-/- platelets displayed decreased α-granule secretion and integrin αIIbβ3 activation or aggregation, but showed normal responses to thrombin. Jak2Plt-/- platelets had impaired intracellular signaling when activated via GPVI, as assessed by tyrosine phosphorylation. Together, the results show that JAK2 deletion impairs platelet immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif signaling and hemostatic function in mice and suggest that aberrant JAK2 signaling in patients with MPNs affects GPVI signaling, leading to hemostatic platelet function.

Pharmacological Inhibition of Insulin Growth Factor-1 Receptor (IGF-1R) Alone or in Combination With Ruxolitinib Shows Therapeutic Efficacy in Preclinical Myeloproliferative Neoplasm Models

Even after development of the JAK1/JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib, myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) patients require novel therapeutic options. While ruxolitinib can considerably improve quality of life and prolong survival, it does not modify the natural disease course in most patients. Moreover, resistance develops with prolonged use. Therefore, various combination treatments are currently being investigated. Published data provide a compelling rationale for the inhibition of insulin growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) signaling in MPN. Here we report that genetic and pharmacological inhibition of IGF-1R selectively reduced Jak2^V617F-driven cytokine-independent proliferation ex vivo. Two different structurally unrelated IGF-1R inhibitors ameliorated disease phenotype in a murine MPN model and significantly prolonged survival. Moreover, in mice, low-dose ruxolitinib synergized with IGF-1R inhibition to increase survival. Our data demonstrate preclinical efficacy of IGF-1R inhibition in a murine MPN model.

The pathobiology of thrombosis, microvascular disease, and hemorrhage in the myeloproliferative neoplasms

Thrombotic, vascular, and bleeding complications are the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in the Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). In these disorders, circulating red cells, leukocytes, and platelets, as well as some vascular endothelial cells, each have abnormalities that are cell-intrinsic to the MPN driver mutations they harbor (eg, JAK2 V617F). When these cells are activated in the MPNs, their interactions with each other create a highly proadhesive and prothrombotic milieu in the circulation that predisposes patients with MPN to venous, arterial, and microvascular thrombosis and occlusive disease. Bleeding problems in the MPNs are caused by the MPN blood cell-initiated development of acquired von Willebrand disease. The inflammatory state created by MPN stem cells in their microenvironment extends systemically to amplify the clinical thrombotic tendency and, at the same time, preferentially promote further MPN stem cell clonal expansion, thereby generating a vicious cycle that favors a prothrombotic state in these diseases.

Novel Pathophysiological Mechanisms of Thrombosis in Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Thrombosis remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in BCR/ABL negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN). Circulating blood cells are both increased in quantity and qualitatively abnormal in MPN, resulting in an increased thrombotic risk. Herein, we review recently elucidated mechanisms of MPN thrombosis and discuss implications of drugs currently under investigation for MPN.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent studies highlight that in JAK2^V617F granulocytes and platelets, thrombo-inflammatory genes are upregulated. Furthermore, in JAK2^V617F granulocytes, protein expression of integrin CD11b, tissue factor, and leukocyte alkaline phosphatase are all increased. Overall, myeloid cells, namely neutrophils, may contribute in several ways, such as through increased adhesion via β1 integrin binding to VCAM1, increased infiltration, and enhanced inducibility to extrude neutrophil extracellular traps. Non-myeloid inflammatory cells may also contribute via secretion of cytokines. With regard to red blood cells, number, rigidity, adhesion, and generation of microvesicles may lead to increased vascular resistance as well as increased cell-cell interactions that promote rolling and adhesion. Platelets may also contribute in a similar fashion. Lastly, the vasculature is also increasingly appreciated, as several studies have demonstrated increased endothelial expression of pro-coagulant and pro-adhesive proteins, such as von Willebrand factor or P-selectin in JAK2^V617F endothelial cells. With the advent of molecular diagnostics, MPN therapeutics are advancing beyond cytoreduction. Our increased understanding of pro-inflammatory and thrombotic pathophysiology in MPN provides a rational basis for evaluation of in-development MPN therapeutics to reduce thrombosis.

N-acetylcysteine inhibits thrombosis in a murine model of myeloproliferative neoplasm

Thrombosis is a major cause of mortality in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), though there is currently little to offer patients with MPN beyond aspirin and cytoreductive therapies such as hydroxyurea for primary prevention. Thrombogenesis in MPN involves multiple cellular mechanisms, including platelet activation and neutrophil-extracellular trap formation; therefore, an antithrombotic agent that targets one or more of these processes would be of therapeutic benefit in MPN. Here, we treated the JAK2V617F knockin mouse model of polycythemia vera with N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a sulfhydryl-containing compound with broad effects on glutathione replenishment, free radical scavenging, and reducing disulfide bonds, to investigate its antithrombotic effects in the context of MPN. Strikingly, NAC treatment extended the lifespan of JAK2V617F mice without impacting blood counts or splenomegaly. Using an acute pulmonary thrombosis model in vivo, we found that NAC reduced thrombus formation to a similar extent as the irreversible platelet inhibitor aspirin. In vitro analysis of platelet activation revealed that NAC reduced thrombin-induced platelet-leukocyte aggregate formation in JAK2V617F mice. Furthermore, NAC reduced neutrophil extracellular trap formation in primary human neutrophils from patients with MPN as well as healthy controls. These results provide evidence that N-acetylcysteine inhibits thrombosis in JAK2V617F mice and provide a pre-clinical rationale for investigating NAC as a therapeutic to reduce thrombotic risk in MPN.

Lessons from mouse models of MPN

Over the past decades, a variety of MPN mouse models have been developed to express in HSC the main mutations identified in patients: JAK2^V617F, CALRdel52 or ins5 and MPL^W515L. These models mimic quite faithfully human PV or ET with their natural evolutions into MF and their hemostasis complications, demonstrating the driver function of these mutations in MPN. Here, we review these models and show how they have improved our general understanding of MPN regarding (1) the mechanisms of fibrosis, thrombosis/hemorrhages and disease initiation, (2) the roles of additional mutations and signaling pathways in disease progression and (3) the preclinical development of novel therapies. We also address controversial results between these models and remind how these models may differ from human MPN onset and also how basically mice are not humans, encouraging caution when one draw lessons from mice to humans. Furthermore, the contribution of germline genetic predisposition, HSC and niche aging, metabolic, oxidative, replicative or genotoxic stress, inflammation, immune escape and additional mutations need to be considered in further investigations to encompass the full complexity of human MPN in mice.

Pathogenesis of cardiovascular events in BCR-ABL1-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms

Thrombosis, both in arterial and venous territories, is the major complication of myeloproliferative neoplasms and is responsible for a high rate of morbidity and mortality. The currently accepted risk factors are an age over 60 years and a history of thrombosis. However, many complex mechanisms contribute to this increased prothrombotic risk, with involvement of all blood cell types, plasmatic factors, and endothelial cells. Besides, some cardiovascular events may originate from arterial vasospasm that could contribute to thrombotic complications. In this review, we discuss recent results obtained in mouse models in the light of data obtained from clinical studies. We emphasize on actors of thrombosis that are currently not targeted with current therapeutics but could be promising targets, i.e, neutrophil extracellular traps and vascular reactivity.

Murine Modeling of Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

Myeloproliferative neoplasms, such as polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis, are bone marrow disorders that result in the overproduction of mature clonal myeloid elements. Identification of recurrent genetic mutations has been described and aid in diagnosis and prognostic determination. Mouse models of these mutations have confirmed the biologic significance of these mutations in myeloproliferative neoplasm disease biology and provided greater insights on the pathways that are dysregulated with each mutation. The models are useful tools that have led to preclinical testing and provided data as validation for future myeloproliferative neoplasm clinical trials.

Erythrocyte-derived microvesicles induce arterial spasms in JAK2V617F myeloproliferative neoplasm

Arterial cardiovascular events are the leading cause of death in patients with JAK2V617F myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). However, their mechanisms are poorly understood. The high prevalence of myocardial infarction without significant coronary stenosis or atherosclerosis in patients with MPNs suggests that vascular function is altered. The consequences of JAK2V617F mutation on vascular reactivity are unknown. We observe here increased responses to vasoconstrictors in arteries from Jak2V617F mice resulting from a disturbed endothelial NO pathway and increased endothelial oxidative stress. This response was reproduced in WT mice by circulating microvesicles isolated from patients carrying JAK2V617F and by erythrocyte-derived microvesicles from transgenic mice. Microvesicles of other cellular origins had no effect. This effect was observed ex vivo on isolated aortas, but also in vivo on femoral arteries. Proteomic analysis of microvesicles derived from JAK2V617F erythrocytes identified increased expression of myeloperoxidase as the likely mechanism accounting for their effect. Myeloperoxidase inhibition in microvesicles derived from JAK2V617F erythrocytes suppressed their effect on oxidative stress. Antioxidants such as simvastatin and N-acetyl cysteine improved arterial dysfunction in Jak2V617F mice. In conclusion, JAK2V617F MPNs are characterized by exacerbated vasoconstrictor responses resulting from increased endothelial oxidative stress caused by circulating erythrocyte-derived microvesicles. Simvastatin appears to be a promising therapeutic strategy in this setting.

Quantitative Optical Diffraction Tomography Imaging of Mouse Platelets

Platelets are specialized anucleate cells that play a major role in hemostasis following vessel injury. More recently, platelets have also been implicated in innate immunity and inflammation by directly interacting with immune cells and releasing proinflammatory signals. It is likely therefore that in certain pathologies, such as chronic parasitic infections and myeloid malignancies, platelets can act as mediators for hemostatic and proinflammatory responses. Fortunately, murine platelet function ex vivo is highly analogous to human, providing a robust model for functional comparison. However, traditional methods of studying platelet phenotype, function and activation status often rely on using large numbers of whole isolated platelet populations, which severely limits the number and type of assays that can be performed with mouse blood. Here, using cutting edge 3D quantitative phase imaging, holotomography, that uses optical diffraction tomography (ODT), we were able to identify and quantify differences in single unlabeled, live platelets with minimal experimental interference. We analyzed platelets directly isolated from whole blood of mice with either a JAK2V617F-positive myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) or Leishmania donovani infection. Image analysis of the platelets indicates previously uncharacterized differences in platelet morphology, including altered cell volume and sphericity, as well as changes in biophysical parameters such as refractive index (RI) and dry mass. Together, these data indicate that, by using holotomography, we were able to identify clear disparities in activation status and potential functional ability in disease states compared to control at the level of single platelets.

Platelet Dysfunction and Thrombosis in JAK2V617F-Mutated Primary Myelofibrotic Mice

OBJECTIVE

The risk of thrombosis in myeloproliferative neoplasms, such as primary myelofibrosis varies depending on the type of key driving mutation (JAK2 [janus kinase 2], CALR [calreticulin], and MPL [myeloproliferative leukemia protein or thrombopoietin receptor]) and the accompanying mutations in other genes. In the current study, we sought to examine the propensity for thrombosis, as well as platelet activation properties in a mouse model of primary myelofibrosis induced by JAK2^V617F (janus kinase 2 with valine to phenylalanine substitution on codon 617) mutation. Approach and Results: Vav1-hJAK2^V617F transgenic mice show hallmarks of primary myelofibrosis, including significant megakaryocytosis and bone marrow fibrosis, with a moderate increase in red blood cells and platelet number. This mouse model was used to study responses to 2 models of vascular injury and to investigate platelet properties. Platelets derived from the mutated mice have reduced aggregation in response to collagen, reduced thrombus formation and thrombus size, as demonstrated using laser-induced or FeCl₃-induced vascular injury models, and increased bleeding time. Strikingly, the mutated platelets had a significantly reduced number of dense granules, which could explain impaired ADP secretion upon platelet activation, and a diminished second wave of activation.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, our study highlights for the first time the influence of a hyperactive JAK2 on platelet activation-induced ADP secretion and dense granule homeostasis, with consequent effects on platelet activation properties.

Description of a knock-in mouse model of JAK2V617F MPN emerging from a minority of mutated hematopoietic stem cells

The major weakness of most knock-in JAK2V617F mouse models is the presence of the JAK2 mutation in all rather than in a few hematopoietic stem cells (HSC), such as in human "early-stage" myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN). Understanding the mechanisms of disease initiation is critical as underscored by the incidence of clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential associated with JAK2V617F. Currently, such studies require competitive transplantation. Here, we report a mouse model obtained by crossing JAK2V617F/WT knock-in mice with PF4iCre transgenic mice. As expected, PF4iCre;JAK2V617F/WT mice developed an early thrombocytosis resulting from the expression of JAK2V617F in the megakaryocytes. However, these mice then developed a polycythemia vera-like phenotype at 10 weeks of age. Using mT/mG reporter mice, we demonstrated that Cre recombination was present in all hematopoietic compartments, including in a low number of HSC. The frequency of mutated cells increased along hematopoietic differentiation mimicking the clonal expansion observed in essential thrombocythemia and polycythemia vera patients. This model thus mimics the HSC compartment observed in early-stage MPN, with a small number of JAK2V617F HSC competing with a majority of JAK2WT HSC. PF4iCre;JAK2V617F/WT mice are a promising tool to investigate the mechanisms that regulate clonal dominance and progression to myelofibrosis.

Clinicopathologic characterisation of myeloid neoplasms with concurrent spliceosome mutations and myeloproliferative-neoplasm-associated mutations

AIMS

Spliceosome genes (SF3B1, SRSF2, U2AF1 and ZRSR2) are commonly mutated in myeloid neoplasms, particularly in myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS). JAK2, MPL and CALR mutations are associated with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPN). Although SF3B1 and MPN-associated mutations frequently co-occur in the rare entity MDS/MPN with ring sideroblasts and thrombocytosis (MDS/MPN-RS-T), myeloid neoplasms with concurrent spliceosome and MPN-associated mutations encompass many disease entities and are not well characterised.

METHODS

Specimens from 2016 to 2019 with concurrent spliceosome and MPN-associated mutations were identified, and the clinicopathologic features were assessed.

RESULTS

The 36 cases were divided into mutational categories based on their spliceosome mutation. At diagnosis, cases with concurrent U2AF1 and MPN-associated mutations had lower leucocyte counts and platelet counts than did the other groups. Cases with mutant SRSF2 were more likely to have ASXL1 and IDH2 mutations, while U2AF1-mutated neoplasms were more likely to have an abnormal karyotype. The most common SF3B1 K700 and U2AF1 S34 mutational hotspots were underrepresented in our cohort of myeloid neoplasms with concurrent spliceosome and MPN-associated mutations, as SF3B1 and U2AF1 mutations tended to involve other codons. Numerous WHO-defined disease entities were represented in each spliceosome gene category; although MDS/MPN-RS-T were only identified in the group with SF3B1 mutations, they constituted only 1/4 of the neoplasms in the category.

CONCLUSIONS

Myeloid neoplasms with different mutant splicing factor and concurrent MPN-associated mutations demonstrate somewhat different clinical and pathologic features, but t he association between genotypes and phenotypes in these overlapping neoplasms is not straightforward.

[Thrombosis and platelet dysfunction in myeloproliferative neoplasms]

Myeloproliferative neoplasms are acquired hematological malignancies, mainly affecting the adult and whose morbidity and mortality stems from haemostasis disorders. The most frequently encountered complications include thrombosis, affecting preferentially the arterial territory, but also atypical locations such as splanchnic vein thrombosis. The pathophysiology of these thromboses is complex and involves different actors: blood cells, endothelium and flow conditions. Numerous studies have been conducted to identify risk factors for thrombosis. To date, only two risk factors have been validated through prospective studies (age over 60 years old, history of thrombotic events) and allow classification of patients as "low risk" and "high risk" as the basis for current treatment recommendations. Haemorrhagic manifestations, less frequent than thrombosis, are mainly related to an alteration of primary haemostasis and are therefore manifested by mucocutaneous bleeding. In these patients, platelet dysfunctions and/or acquired Willebrand syndromes can be found. The pathophysiology of thrombosis and platelet dysfunction during myeloproliferative neoplasms remains to date partially unknown. In this review, we offer to focus on physiopathological mechanisms as well as the latest advances in their understanding.

Increased neutrophil extracellular trap formation promotes thrombosis in myeloproliferative neoplasms

Thrombosis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Philadelphia chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs), clonal disorders of hematopoiesis characterized by activated Janus kinase (JAK)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation, a component of innate immunity, has been linked to thrombosis. We demonstrate that neutrophils from patients with MPNs are primed for NET formation, an effect blunted by pharmacological inhibition of JAK signaling. Mice with conditional knock-in of Jak2^V617F, the most common molecular driver of MPN, have an increased propensity for NET formation and thrombosis. Inhibition of JAK-STAT signaling with the clinically available JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib abrogated NET formation and reduced thrombosis in a deep vein stenosis murine model. We further show that expression of PAD4, a protein required for NET formation, is increased in JAK2^V617F-expressing neutrophils and that PAD4 is required for Jak2^V617F-driven NET formation and thrombosis in vivo. Finally, in a population study of more than 10,000 individuals without a known myeloid disorder, JAK2^V617F-positive clonal hematopoiesis was associated with an increased incidence of thrombosis. In aggregate, our results link JAK2^V617F expression to NET formation and thrombosis and suggest that JAK2 inhibition may reduce thrombosis in MPNs through cell-intrinsic effects on neutrophil function.

[Pathogenesis of thrombosis in JAK2V617F myeloproliferative neoplasms]

BCR-ABL negative myeloproliferative neoplasms are acquired hematologic diseases characterized by blood cell proliferation and that include polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocytemia (ET) and primary myelofibrosis (PMF). Occurring of venous and arterial thrombosis is the main complication of these diseases. Risk factors for thrombosis are individuals older than 60 and history of thrombosis. The mechanisms leading to thrombosis are complex and involve several blood compartments, plasmatic factors and endothelial cells. Over the last years, new actors of thrombosis have been discovered.

Roles of JAK2 in Aging, Inflammation, Hematopoiesis and Malignant Transformation

Clonal alterations in hematopoietic cells occur during aging and are often associated with the establishment of a subclinical inflammatory environment. Several age-related conditions and diseases may be initiated or promoted by these alterations. JAK2 mutations are among the most frequently mutated genes in blood cells during aging. The most common mutation within the JAK2 gene is JAK2-V617F that leads to constitutive activation of the kinase and thereby aberrant engagement of downstream signaling pathways. JAK2 mutations can act as central drivers of myeloproliferative neoplasia, a pre-leukemic and age-related malignancy. Likewise, hyperactive JAK-signaling is a hallmark of immune diseases and critically influences inflammation, coagulation and thrombosis. In this review we aim to summarize the current knowledge on JAK2 in clonal hematopoiesis during aging, the role of JAK-signaling in inflammation and lymphocyte biology and JAK2 function in age-related diseases and malignant transformation.

Emerging Factors Implicated in Fibrotic Organ-Associated Thrombosis: The Case of Two Organs

Thrombosis is at the heart of cardiovascular complications observed in specific diseases. A heightened thrombosis risk above that in general population in diseases such as myelofibrosis and chronic kidney disease implicates disease-specific mediators of thrombosis. This relative lack of information regarding the mechanisms of thrombosis in specific organ pathologies hitherto has remained limited. Evolving literature implicates some soluble factors in the blood of patients with discrete disorders, inflicting fundamental changes in the components of thrombosis. In this era of precision medicine, integrating these disease-specific factors in a comprehensive thrombotic risk assessment of patients is imperative in guiding therapeutic decisions. A complex network of mechanisms regulates each organ pathology and resultant thrombotic phenotypes. This review surveys different effectors of thrombogenicity associated with two pathologically fibrotic organs used as model systems, the bone marrow and kidney, as well as focuses attention to a common inducer of fibrosis and thrombosis, lysyl oxidase.

Re-evaluation of hematocrit as a determinant of thrombotic risk in erythrocytosis

Here we critically evaluate the role of elevated hematocrit as the principal determinant of thrombotic risk in polycythemia and erythrocytosis, defined by an expansion of red cell mass. Since red cell volume determination is no longer readily available, in clinical practice, polycythemia and erythrocytosis are defined by elevated hemoglobin and hematocrit. Thrombosis is common in Chuvash erythrocytosis and polycythemia vera. Although the increased thrombotic risk is assumed to be due to the elevated hematocrit and an associated increase in blood viscosity, thrombosis does not accompany most types of erythrocytosis. We review studies indicating that the occurrence of thrombosis in Chuvash erythrocytosis is independent of hematocrit, that the thrombotic risk is paradoxically increased by phlebotomy in Chuvash erythrocytosis, and that, when compared to chemotherapy, phlebotomy is associated with increased thrombotic risk in polycythemia vera. Inherited and environmental causes that lead to polycythemia and erythrocytosis are accompanied by diverse cellular changes that could directly affect thrombotic risk, irrespective of the elevated hematocrit. The pressing issue in these disorders is to define factors other than elevated hematocrit that determine thrombotic risk. Defining these predisposing factors in polycythemia and erythrocytosis should then lead to rational therapies and facilitate development of targeted interventions.

Red blood cells: the forgotten player in hemostasis and thrombosis

New evidence has stirred up a long-standing but undeservedly forgotten interest in the role of erythrocytes, or red blood cells (RBCs), in blood clotting and its disorders. This review summarizes the most recent research that describes the involvement of RBCs in hemostasis and thrombosis. There are both quantitative and qualitative changes in RBCs that affect bleeding and thrombosis, as well as interactions of RBCs with cellular and molecular components of the hemostatic system. The changes in RBCs that affect hemostasis and thrombosis include RBC counts or hematocrit (modulating blood rheology through viscosity) and qualitative changes, such as deformability, aggregation, expression of adhesive proteins and phosphatidylserine, release of extracellular microvesicles, and hemolysis. The pathogenic mechanisms implicated in thrombotic and hemorrhagic risk include variable adherence of RBCs to the vessel wall, which depends on the functional state of RBCs and/or endothelium, modulation of platelet reactivity and platelet margination, alterations of fibrin structure and reduced susceptibility to fibrinolysis, modulation of nitric oxide availability, and the levels of von Willebrand factor and factor VIII in blood related to the ABO blood group system. RBCs are involved in platelet-driven contraction of clots and thrombi that results in formation of a tightly packed array of polyhedral erythrocytes, or polyhedrocytes, which comprises a nearly impermeable barrier that is important for hemostasis and wound healing. The revisited notion of the importance of RBCs is largely based on clinical and experimental associations between RBCs and thrombosis or bleeding, implying that RBCs are a prospective therapeutic target in hemostatic and thrombotic disorders.

JAK2-V617F promotes venous thrombosis through β1/β2 integrin activation

JAK2-V617F-positive chronic myeloproliferative neoplasia (CMN) commonly displays dysfunction of integrins and adhesion molecules expressed on platelets, erythrocytes, and leukocytes. However, the mechanism by which the 2 major leukocyte integrin chains, β1 and β2, may contribute to CMN pathophysiology remained unclear. β1 (α4β1; VLA-4) and β2 (αLβ2; LFA-1) integrins are essential regulators for attachment of leukocytes to endothelial cells. We here showed enhanced adhesion of granulocytes from mice with JAK2-V617F knockin (JAK2+/VF mice) to vascular cell adhesion molecule 1- (VCAM1-) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1-coated (ICAM1-coated) surfaces. Soluble VCAM1 and ICAM1 ligand binding assays revealed increased affinity of β1 and β2 integrins for their respective ligands. For β1 integrins, this correlated with a structural change from the low- to the high-affinity conformation induced by JAK2-V617F. JAK2-V617F triggered constitutive activation of the integrin inside-out signaling molecule Rap1, resulting in translocation toward the cell membrane. Employing a venous thrombosis model, we demonstrated that neutralizing anti-VLA-4 and anti-β2 integrin antibodies suppress pathologic thrombosis as observed in JAK2+/VF mice. In addition, aberrant homing of JAK2+/VF leukocytes to the spleen was inhibited by neutralizing anti-β2 antibodies and by pharmacologic inhibition of Rap1. Thus, our findings identified cross-talk between JAK2-V617F and integrin activation promoting pathologic thrombosis and abnormal trafficking of leukocytes to the spleen.

JAK2V617F influences epigenomic changes in myeloproliferative neoplasms

Negative valine (V) to phenylalanine (F) switch at the Janus kinase (JAK2) 617 codon (V617F) is the dominant driver mutation in patients with myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). JAK2V617F was proved to be sufficient for cell transformation; however, independent mutations might influence the following epigenomic modifications. To assess the JAK2V617F-induced downstream epigenomic changes without interferences, we profiled the epigenomic changes in ectopically expressed JAK2V617F in Ba/F3 cells. Antibodies against phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (pSTAT3) and enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) were used for chromatin-immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) to detect the downstream epigenomic targets in the JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway. To confirm the JAK2V617F-induced epigenetic changes in vivo, DNA methylation changes in the target loci in patients with MPNs were detected through methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction and were clustered against the changes within controls. We found that ectopically expressed JAK2V617F in Ba/F3 cells reduced the binding specificity; it was associated with cis-regulatory elements and recognized DNA motifs in both pSTAT3-downstream and EZH2-associated targets. Overlapping target loci between the control and JAK2V617F were <3% and 0.4%, respectively, as identified through pSTAT3 and EZH2 ChIP-seq. Furthermore, the methylation changes in the direct target loci (FOXH1, HOXC9, and SRF) were clustered independently from the control locus (L1TD1) and other mutation genes (HMGA2 and Lin28A) in the analyzed MPN samples. Therefore, JAK2V617F influences target binding in both pSTAT3 and EZH2. Without mutations in epigenetic regulators, JAK2V617F can induce downstream epigenomic modifications. Thus, epigenetic changes in JAK2 downstream targets might be trackable in vivo.

Loss of pleckstrin-2 reverts lethality and vascular occlusions in JAK2V617F-positive myeloproliferative neoplasms

V617F driver mutation of JAK2 is the leading cause of the Philadelphia-chromosome-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). Although thrombosis is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in MPNs, the mechanisms underlying their pathogenesis are unclear. Here, we identified pleckstrin-2 (Plek2) as a downstream target of the JAK2/STAT5 pathway in erythroid and myeloid cells, and showed that it is upregulated in a JAK2V617F-positive MPN mouse model and in patients with MPNs. Loss of Plek2 ameliorated JAK2V617F-induced myeloproliferative phenotypes including erythrocytosis, neutrophilia, thrombocytosis, and splenomegaly, thereby reverting the widespread vascular occlusions and lethality in JAK2V617F-knockin mice. Additionally, we demonstrated that a reduction in red blood cell mass was the main contributing factor in the reversion of vascular occlusions. Thus, our study identifies Plek2 as an effector of the JAK2/STAT5 pathway and a key factor in the pathogenesis of JAK2V617F-induced MPNs, pointing to Plek2 as a viable target for the treatment of MPNs.

Red blood cells in thrombosis

Red blood cells (RBCs) have historically been considered passive bystanders in thrombosis. However, clinical and epidemiological studies have associated quantitative and qualitative abnormalities in RBCs, including altered hematocrit, sickle cell disease, thalassemia, hemolytic anemias, and malaria, with both arterial and venous thrombosis. A growing body of mechanistic studies suggests that RBCs can promote thrombus formation and enhance thrombus stability. These findings suggest that RBCs may contribute to thrombosis pathophysiology and reveal potential strategies for therapeutically targeting RBCs to reduce thrombosis.

Acquired platelet disorders

In contrast to congenital platelet disorders, which are rare, acquired platelet dysfunctions are more common in clinical practice. Their main causes are medications and systemic/hematologic diseases. Typical clinical manifestations are mucosal bleeding, epistaxis, or superficial epidermal bleeding normally of modest entity. In most cases, the molecular mechanisms underlying impaired platelet function are not fully established, making it difficult to optimize patient care. We here provide a short overview of the various forms of acquired platelet disorders, with a particular focus on recent mechanistic studies on platelet dysfunction in von Willebrand disease.

Elevated hematocrit enhances platelet accumulation following vascular injury

Red blood cells (RBCs) demonstrate procoagulant properties in vitro, and elevated hematocrit is associated with reduced bleeding and increased thrombosis risk in humans. These observations suggest RBCs contribute to thrombus formation. However, effects of RBCs on thrombosis are difficult to assess because humans and mice with elevated hematocrit typically have coexisting pathologies. Using an experimental model of elevated hematocrit in healthy mice, we measured effects of hematocrit in 2 in vivo clot formation models. We also assessed thrombin generation, platelet-thrombus interactions, and platelet accumulation in thrombi ex vivo, in vitro, and in silico. Compared with controls, mice with elevated hematocrit (RBC^HIGH) formed thrombi at a faster rate and had a shortened vessel occlusion time. Thrombi in control and RBC^HIGH mice did not differ in size or fibrin content, and there was no difference in levels of circulating thrombin-antithrombin complexes. In vitro, increasing the hematocrit increased thrombin generation in the absence of platelets; however, this effect was reduced in the presence of platelets. In silico, direct numerical simulations of whole blood predicted elevated hematocrit increases the frequency and duration of interactions between platelets and a thrombus. When human whole blood was perfused over collagen at arterial shear rates, elevating the hematocrit increased the rate of platelet deposition and thrombus growth. These data suggest RBCs promote arterial thrombosis by enhancing platelet accumulation at the site of vessel injury. Maintaining a normal hematocrit may reduce arterial thrombosis risk in humans.

Splanchnic vein thrombosis in myeloproliferative neoplasms: pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms of disease

Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are the most common underlying prothrombotic disorder found in patients with splanchnic vein thrombosis (SVT). Clinical risk factors for MPN-associated SVTs include younger age, female sex, concomitant hypercoagulable disorders, and the JAK2 V617F mutation. These risk factors are distinct from those associated with arterial or deep venous thrombosis (DVT) in MPN patients, suggesting disparate disease mechanisms. The pathophysiology of SVT is thought to derive from local interactions between activated blood cells and the unique splanchnic endothelial environment. Other mutations commonly found in MPNs, including CALR and MPL, are rare in MPN-associated SVT. The purpose of this article is to review the clinical and molecular risk factors for MPN-associated SVT, with particular focus on the possible mechanisms of SVT formation in MPN patients.

Genetic basis and molecular pathophysiology of classical myeloproliferative neoplasms

The genetic landscape of classical myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) is in large part elucidated. The MPN-restricted driver mutations, including those in JAK2, calreticulin (CALR), and myeloproliferative leukemia virus (MPL), abnormally activate the cytokine receptor/JAK2 pathway and their downstream effectors, more particularly the STATs. The most frequent mutation, JAK2V617F, activates the 3 main myeloid cytokine receptors (erythropoietin receptor, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor receptor, and MPL) whereas CALR or MPL mutants are restricted to MPL activation. This explains why JAK2V617F is associated with polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia (ET), and primary myelofibrosis (PMF) whereas CALR and MPL mutants are found in ET and PMF. Other mutations in genes involved in epigenetic regulation, splicing, and signaling cooperate with the 3 MPN drivers and play a key role in the PMF pathogenesis. Mutations in epigenetic regulators TET2 and DNMT3A are involved in disease initiation and may precede the acquisition of JAK2V617F. Other mutations in epigenetic regulators such as EZH2 and ASXL1 also play a role in disease initiation and disease progression. Mutations in the splicing machinery are predominantly found in PMF and are implicated in the development of anemia or pancytopenia. Both heterogeneity of classical MPNs and prognosis are determined by a specific genomic landscape, that is, type of MPN driver mutations, association with other mutations, and their order of acquisition. However, factors other than somatic mutations play an important role in disease initiation as well as disease progression such as germ line predisposition, inflammation, and aging. Delineation of these environmental factors will be important to better understand the precise pathogenesis of MPN.

Diagnosis, prevention, and management of bleeding episodes in Philadelphia-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms: recommendations by the Hemostasis Working Party of the German Society of Hematology and Medical Oncology (DGHO) and the Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis Research (GTH)

Philadelphia-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (Ph-negative MPN) comprise a heterogeneous group of chronic hematologic malignancies. The quality of life, morbidity, and mortality of patients with MPN are primarily affected by disease-related symptoms, thromboembolic and hemorrhagic complications, and progression to myelofibrosis and acute leukemia. Major bleeding represents a common and important complication in MPN, and the incidence of such bleeding events will become even more relevant in the future due to the increasing disease prevalence and survival of MPN patients. This review discusses the causes, differential diagnoses, prevention, and management of bleeding episodes in patients with MPN, aiming at defining updated standards of care in these often challenging situations.

Lysyl oxidase is associated with increased thrombosis and platelet reactivity

Lysyl oxidase (LOX) is overexpressed in various pathologies associated with thrombosis, such as arterial stenosis and myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs). LOX is elevated in the megakaryocytic lineage of mouse models of MPNs and in patients with MPNs. To gain insight into the role of LOX in thrombosis and platelet function without compounding the influences of other pathologies, transgenic mice expressing LOX in wild-type megakaryocytes and platelets (Pf4-Lox(tg/tg)) were generated. Pf4-Lox(tg/tg) mice had a normal number of platelets; however, time to vessel occlusion after endothelial injury was significantly shorter in Pf4-Lox(tg/tg) mice, indicating a higher propensity for thrombus formation in vivo. Exploring underlying mechanisms, we found that Pf4-Lox(tg/tg) platelets adhere better to collagen and have greater aggregation response to lower doses of collagen compared with controls. Platelet activation in response to the ligand for collagen receptor glycoprotein VI (cross-linked collagen-related peptide) was unaffected. However, the higher affinity of Pf4-Lox(tg/tg) platelets to the collagen sequence GFOGER implies that the collagen receptor integrin α2β1 is affected by LOX. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that LOX enhances platelet activation and thrombosis.

Ferric Chloride-induced Thrombosis Mouse Model on Carotid Artery and Mesentery Vessel

Severe thrombosis and its ischemic consequences such as myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and stroke are major worldwide health issues. The ferric chloride injury is now a well-established technique to rapidly and accurately induce the formation of thrombi in exposed veins or artery of small and large diameter. This model has played a key role in the study of the pathophysiology of thrombosis, in the discovery and validation of novel antithrombotic drugs and in the understanding of the mechanism of action of these new agents. Here, the implementation of this technique on a mesenteric vessel and carotid artery in mice is presented. The method describes how to label circulating leukocytes and platelets with a fluorescent dye and to observe, by intravital microscopy on the exposed mesentery, their accumulation at the injured vessel wall which leads to the formation of a thrombus. On the carotid artery, the occlusion caused by the clot formation is measured by monitoring the blood flow with a Doppler probe.

Haemorrhagic and thrombotic diatheses in mouse models with thrombocytosis

We studied haemostasis in two mouse models with thrombocytosis caused by different pathogenic mechanisms. In one strain (Yall;Mpl-/-) thrombocytosis is driven by a misbalance between thrombopoietin and its receptor, whereas in the other strain, thrombocytosis is caused by expressing a human JAK2-V617F transgene (FF1) that depends on activation by Cre-recombinase (VavCre;FF1, MxCre;FF1). Thrombotic responses were increased following some, but not all types of challenges. In a vaso-occlusive thrombotic model following collagen-adrenaline injection we found increased mortality in both strains. Arterial thrombosis, examined after ferric chloride-induced carotid injury, was accelerated but with little impact on maximal thrombus size. In a vena cava stasis model, clots were of similar size as in wild-type controls, but exhibited a different composition with a higher platelet to fibrin ratio. Both thrombocytosis strains displayed increased haemorrhagic tendency in a tail bleeding assay. Yall;Mpl and VavCre;FF1 displayed a lower proportion of the more reactive high-molecular-weight forms of von Willebrand factor in their plasma, mimicking essential thrombocythaemia with very high platelet counts. Bleeding could not be explained by clear defects in platelet activation, which were normal or only weakly decreased. In conclusion, these models of thrombocytosis recapitulate several features of the haemorrhagic and thrombotic diatheses in ET and PV demonstrating potentials but also some limitations to study these major complications.