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Suthar A, Gopalakrishnan A, Maji C, Dahiya RK, Kumar R, Kumar S. Evaluation of the inhibitory efficacy of quaternary ammonium compounds on in vitro growth of Theileria equi parasite in MASP culture. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2022; 20:11-16. [PMID: 35952523 PMCID: PMC9385543 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2022.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Equine piroplasmosis has become a global problem of the equine husbandry sector. Haemoprotozoans evolved very quickly and developed resistance against most of the current available drugs. Phospholipid membrane synthesis by choline kinase enzyme is vital for propagation of intra-erythrocytic protozoa parasites. This pathway was targeted in the present study. Quaternary ammonium salts (QAS) and their analogues act against choline and hamper the biosynthesis process for phosphatidylcholine. We analysed anti-T. equi activity of three QAS - decamethonium bromide (DMB), decyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (DTAB) and dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (DDTAB). Theileria equi parasites in vitro treated with different concentrations of DMB, DDTAB and DTAB. Drug treated T. equi failed to multiply further in the viability test. The IC50 value of DMB, DDTAB and DTAB for growth inhibition of T. equi was 14.0 μM, 469.51 nM and 558.40 nM, respectively. DMB, DDTAB and DTAB treated T. equi parasites were observed to be devoid of internal structures, showing pyknotic and degenerative appearances. Various concentration of DMB, DDTAB and DTAB were analysed for their cytotoxicity and haemolytic activity on horse's PBMCs and RBCs. DMB was less than 10% cytotoxic to PBMCs, while DDTAB and DTAB were 40%-50% cytotoxic at 1000 μM concentrations. The respective CC50 values were 7202.96 μM, 1026.26 μM and 1263.95 μM. DMB and DTAB showed least haemolytic activity (<3%); whereas DDTAB was more haemolytic to RBCs at highest concentration of 2000 μM. The respective CC50 values of these drugs were 224495.3 μM, and 39101.35 μM; 713.54 μM. Specific selective index for DMB, DDTAB and DTAB values with respect to host's PBMC and RBC cells, were 514.50, 2185.81, 2263.52 and 16035.38, 1519.75, 70023.91, respectively. These data indicated its non-toxicity to host's cells and selective potential of anti-T. equi in vitro activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinav Suthar
- Equine Piroplasmosis Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India,Division of Medicine, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India,Department of Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Kamdhenu University, Sardarkrushinagar, 385506, Gujarat, India
| | - A. Gopalakrishnan
- Equine Piroplasmosis Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India,Division of Medicine, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India,Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, Madras Veterinary College, TANUVAS, Chennai, 600007, Tamil Naidu, India
| | - Chinmoy Maji
- Equine Piroplasmosis Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India,Subject Matter Specialist (Animal Health), North 24-Praganas Krishi Vigyan Kendra, WBUAFS, Ashokenagar, 743223, West Bengal, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar Dahiya
- Equine Piroplasmosis Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India
| | - Rajender Kumar
- Equine Piroplasmosis Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India
| | - Sanjay Kumar
- Equine Piroplasmosis Laboratory, ICAR-National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, 125001, Haryana, India,Corresponding author.
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Jeong J, Fujita K. Selective Synthesis of Bisdimethylamine Derivatives from Diols and an Aqueous Solution of Dimethylamine through Iridium‐Catalyzed Borrowing Hydrogen Pathway. ChemCatChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202101499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaeyoung Jeong
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies Kyoto University Sakyo-ku Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
| | - Ken‐ichi Fujita
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies Kyoto University Sakyo-ku Kyoto 606-8501 Japan
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Mustière R, Vanelle P, Primas N. Plasmodial Kinase Inhibitors Targeting Malaria: Recent Developments. Molecules 2020; 25:E5949. [PMID: 33334080 PMCID: PMC7765515 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25245949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent progress in reducing malaria cases and ensuing deaths is threatened by factors like mutations that induce resistance to artemisinin derivatives. Multiple drugs are currently in clinical trials for malaria treatment, including some with novel mechanisms of action. One of these, MMV390048, is a plasmodial kinase inhibitor. This review lists the recently developed molecules which target plasmodial kinases. A systematic review of the literature was performed using CAPLUS and MEDLINE databases from 2005 to 2020. It covers a total of 60 articles and describes about one hundred compounds targeting 22 plasmodial kinases. This work highlights the strong potential of compounds targeting plasmodial kinases for future drug therapies. However, the majority of the Plasmodium kinome remains to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrice Vanelle
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, 13385 Marseille CEDEX 05, France;
| | - Nicolas Primas
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, Equipe Pharmaco-Chimie Radicalaire, Faculté de Pharmacie, 13385 Marseille CEDEX 05, France;
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Khalifa M, Few LL, See Too WC. ChoK-ing the Pathogenic Bacteria: Potential of Human Choline Kinase Inhibitors as Antimicrobial Agents. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:1823485. [PMID: 32695809 PMCID: PMC7368946 DOI: 10.1155/2020/1823485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Novel antimicrobial agents are crucial to combat antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria. Choline kinase (ChoK) in bacteria catalyzes the synthesis of phosphorylcholine, which is subsequently incorporated into the cell wall or outer membrane. In certain species of bacteria, phosphorylcholine is also used to synthesize membrane phosphatidylcholine. Numerous human ChoK inhibitors (ChoKIs) have been synthesized and tested for anticancer properties. Inhibition of S. pneumoniae ChoK by human ChoKIs showed a promising effect by distorting the cell wall and retarded the growth of this pathogen. Comparison of amino acid sequences at the catalytic sites of putative choline kinases from pathogenic bacteria and human enzymes revealed striking sequence conservation that supports the potential application of currently available ChoKIs for inhibiting bacterial enzymes. We also propose the combined use of ChoKIs and nanoparticles for targeted delivery to the pathogen while shielding the human host from any possible side effects of the inhibitors. More research should focus on the verification of putative bacterial ChoK activities and the characterization of ChoKIs with active enzymes. In conclusion, the presence of ChoK in a wide range of pathogenic bacteria and the distinct function of this enzyme has made it an attractive drug target. This review highlighted the possibility of "choking" bacterial ChoKs by using human ChoKIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moad Khalifa
- School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Ling Ling Few
- School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
| | - Wei Cun See Too
- School of Health Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
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Okombo J, Chibale K. Recent updates in the discovery and development of novel antimalarial drug candidates. MEDCHEMCOMM 2018; 9:437-453. [PMID: 30108934 PMCID: PMC6071755 DOI: 10.1039/c7md00637c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Though morbidity and mortality due to malaria have declined in the last 15 years, emerging resistance to first-line artemisinin-based antimalarials, absence of efficacious vaccines and limited chemotherapeutic alternatives imperil the consolidation of these gains. As a blueprint to steer future designs of new medicines, malaria drug discovery recently adopted a descriptive proposal for the ideal candidate molecules and drugs likely to successfully progress into the final stages of clinical development. As an audit of recent developments in the chemotherapy of malaria in the last five years, this review captures a landscape of diverse molecules at various stages of drug development and discusses their progress. In brief, we also discuss how omics data on Plasmodium has been extensively leveraged to identify potential vaccine candidates and putative targets of molecules in development and clinical use as well as map loci implicit in their modes of resistance. Future perspective on malaria drug development should involve a reconciliation of some of the challenges of the target candidate profiles (TCPs), specifically TCP3, with the promise of effective anti-hypnozoite medicines. Similarly, with the recent development of a humanized mouse model that can evaluate the prophylactic potential of candidate drugs, we argue for increased effort at identifying more liver-stage molecules, which are often only secondarily prioritized in conventional screening programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Okombo
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cape Town , Rondebosch 7701 , South Africa .
| | - Kelly Chibale
- Department of Chemistry , University of Cape Town , Rondebosch 7701 , South Africa .
- South African Medical Research Council Drug Discovery and Development Research Unit , Department of Chemistry and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine , University of Cape Town , Rondebosch 7701 , South Africa
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High Accumulation and In Vivo Recycling of the New Antimalarial Albitiazolium Lead to Rapid Parasite Death. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.00352-17. [PMID: 28607017 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00352-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Albitiazolium is the lead compound of bisthiazolium choline analogues and exerts powerful in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activities. Here we provide new insight into the fate of albitiazolium in vivo in mice and how it exerts its pharmacological activity. We show that the drug exhibits rapid and potent activity and has very favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Pharmacokinetic studies in Plasmodium vinckei-infected mice indicated that albitiazolium rapidly and specifically accumulates to a great extent (cellular accumulation ratio, >150) in infected erythrocytes. Unexpectedly, plasma concentrations and the area under concentration-time curves increased by 15% and 69% when mice were infected at 0.9% and 8.9% parasitemia, respectively. Albitiazolium that had accumulated in infected erythrocytes and in the spleen was released into the plasma, where it was then available for another round of pharmacological activity. This recycling of the accumulated drug, after the rupture of the infected erythrocytes, likely extends its pharmacological effect. We also established a new viability assay in the P. vinckei-infected mouse model to discriminate between fast- and slow-acting antimalarials. We found that albitiazolium impaired parasite viability in less than 6 and 3 h at the ring and late stages, respectively, while parasite morphology was affected more belatedly. This highlights that viability and morphology are two parameters that can be differentially affected by a drug treatment, an element that should be taken into account when screening new antimalarial drugs.
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Basilico N, Migotto M, Ilboudo DP, Taramelli D, Stradi R, Pini E. Modified quaternary ammonium salts as potential antimalarial agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:4681-4687. [PMID: 26081764 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.05.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Revised: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A series of new quaternary ammonium salts containing a polyconjugated moiety has been synthesized and characterized; their biological activity as potential antimalarial agents was investigated, as well. All compounds were screened against chloroquine resistant W-2 (CQ-R) and chloroquine sensitive, D-10 (CQ-S) strains of Plasmodium falciparum showing IC50 in the submicromolar range and low toxicity against human endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Basilico
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Chirurgiche e Odontoiatriche, Università di Milano, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Mara Migotto
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche - Sezione di Chimica Generale e Organica 'A.Marchesini', Università di Milano, Via Venezian 21, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Denise Patoinewende Ilboudo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università di Milano, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Donatella Taramelli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università di Milano, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Riccardo Stradi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche - Sezione di Chimica Generale e Organica 'A.Marchesini', Università di Milano, Via Venezian 21, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Elena Pini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche - Sezione di Chimica Generale e Organica 'A.Marchesini', Università di Milano, Via Venezian 21, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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8
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de Macêdo JP, Schumann Burkard G, Niemann M, Barrett MP, Vial H, Mäser P, Roditi I, Schneider A, Bütikofer P. An Atypical Mitochondrial Carrier That Mediates Drug Action in Trypanosoma brucei. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004875. [PMID: 25946070 PMCID: PMC4422618 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Elucidating the mechanism of action of trypanocidal compounds is an important step in the development of more efficient drugs against Trypanosoma brucei. In a screening approach using an RNAi library in T. brucei bloodstream forms, we identified a member of the mitochondrial carrier family, TbMCP14, as a prime candidate mediating the action of a group of anti-parasitic choline analogs. Depletion of TbMCP14 by inducible RNAi in both bloodstream and procyclic forms increased resistance of parasites towards the compounds by 7-fold and 3-fold, respectively, compared to uninduced cells. In addition, down-regulation of TbMCP14 protected bloodstream form mitochondria from a drug-induced decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential. Conversely, over-expression of the carrier in procyclic forms increased parasite susceptibility more than 13-fold. Metabolomic analyses of parasites over-expressing TbMCP14 showed increased levels of the proline metabolite, pyrroline-5-carboxylate, suggesting a possible involvement of TbMCP14 in energy production. The generation of TbMCP14 knock-out parasites showed that the carrier is not essential for survival of T. brucei bloodstream forms, but reduced parasite proliferation under standard culture conditions. In contrast, depletion of TbMCP14 in procyclic forms resulted in growth arrest, followed by parasite death. The time point at which parasite proliferation stopped was dependent on the major energy source, i.e. glucose versus proline, in the culture medium. Together with our findings that proline-dependent ATP production in crude mitochondria from TbMCP14-depleted trypanosomes was reduced compared to control mitochondria, the study demonstrates that TbMCP14 is involved in energy production in T. brucei. Since TbMCP14 belongs to a trypanosomatid-specific clade of mitochondrial carrier family proteins showing very poor similarity to mitochondrial carriers of mammals, it may represent an interesting target for drug action or targeting. Human and animal trypanosomiases caused by Trypanosoma brucei parasites represent major burdens to human welfare and agricultural development in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Although the numbers of infected humans have decreased continuously during the last decades, emerging resistance and adverse side effects against commonly used drugs require an urgent need for the identification of novel drug targets and the development of new drugs. Using an unbiased genome-wide screen to search for genes involved in the mode of action of trypanocidal compounds, we identified a member of the mitochondrial carrier family, TbMCP14, as prime candidate to mediate the action of a group of anti-parasitic choline analogs against T. brucei. Ablation of TbMCP14 expression by RNA interference or gene deletion decreases the susceptibility of parasites towards the compounds while over-expression of the carrier shows the opposite effect. In addition, down-regulation of TbMCP14 protects mitochondria from drug-induced decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and reduces proline-dependent ATP production. Together, the results demonstrate that TbMCP14 is involved in energy production in T. brucei, possibly by acting as a mitochondrial proline carrier, and reveal TbMCP14 as candidate protein for drug action or targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan P de Macêdo
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Moritz Niemann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Henri Vial
- Dynamique Moléculaire des Interactions Membranaires, CNRS UMR 5235, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier, France
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Isabel Roditi
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - André Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Bütikofer
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Penarete-Vargas DM, Boisson A, Urbach S, Chantelauze H, Peyrottes S, Fraisse L, Vial HJ. A chemical proteomics approach for the search of pharmacological targets of the antimalarial clinical candidate albitiazolium in Plasmodium falciparum using photocrosslinking and click chemistry. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113918. [PMID: 25470252 PMCID: PMC4254740 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for severe malaria which is one of the most prevalent and deadly infectious diseases in the world. The antimalarial therapeutic arsenal is hampered by the onset of resistance to all known pharmacological classes of compounds, so new drugs with novel mechanisms of action are critically needed. Albitiazolium is a clinical antimalarial candidate from a series of choline analogs designed to inhibit plasmodial phospholipid metabolism. Here we developed an original chemical proteomic approach to identify parasite proteins targeted by albitiazolium during their native interaction in living parasites. We designed a bifunctional albitiazolium-derived compound (photoactivable and clickable) to covalently crosslink drug-interacting parasite proteins in situ followed by their isolation via click chemistry reactions. Mass spectrometry analysis of drug-interacting proteins and subsequent clustering on gene ontology terms revealed parasite proteins involved in lipid metabolic activities and, interestingly, also in lipid binding, transport, and vesicular transport functions. In accordance with this, the albitiazolium-derivative was localized in the endoplasmic reticulum and trans-Golgi network of P. falciparum. Importantly, during competitive assays with albitiazolium, the binding of choline/ethanolamine phosphotransferase (the enzyme involved in the last step of phosphatidylcholine synthesis) was substantially displaced, thus confirming the efficiency of this strategy for searching albitiazolium targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Marcela Penarete-Vargas
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, Université Montpellier II, cc107, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
- * E-mail: (DMPV); (HJV)
| | - Anaïs Boisson
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, Université Montpellier II, cc107, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
| | - Serge Urbach
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS UMR 5203, INSERM U661, Université Montpellier I, Université Montpellier II, F-34094 Montpellier, France
| | - Hervé Chantelauze
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier II, cc1705, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
| | - Suzanne Peyrottes
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron, CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier II, cc1705, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
| | - Laurent Fraisse
- Sanofi, Therapeutic Strategic Unit for Infectious Diseases, 195 route d’Espagne, BP 13669, 31036 Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Henri J. Vial
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, Université Montpellier II, cc107, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
- * E-mail: (DMPV); (HJV)
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Barnett
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , Memphis, Tennessee 38105, United States
| | - R Kiplin Guy
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital , Memphis, Tennessee 38105, United States
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Lipid synthesis in protozoan parasites: a comparison between kinetoplastids and apicomplexans. Prog Lipid Res 2013; 52:488-512. [PMID: 23827884 DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2013] [Revised: 06/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lipid metabolism is of crucial importance for pathogens. Lipids serve as cellular building blocks, signalling molecules, energy stores, posttranslational modifiers, and pathogenesis factors. Parasites rely on a complex system of uptake and synthesis mechanisms to satisfy their lipid needs. The parameters of this system change dramatically as the parasite transits through the various stages of its life cycle. Here we discuss the tremendous recent advances that have been made in the understanding of the synthesis and uptake pathways for fatty acids and phospholipids in apicomplexan and kinetoplastid parasites, including Plasmodium, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Lipid synthesis differs in significant ways between parasites from both phyla and the human host. Parasites have acquired novel pathways through endosymbiosis, as in the case of the apicoplast, have dramatically reshaped substrate and product profiles, and have evolved specialized lipids to interact with or manipulate the host. These differences potentially provide opportunities for drug development. We outline the lipid pathways for key species in detail as they progress through the developmental cycle and highlight those that are of particular importance to the biology of the pathogens and/or are the most promising targets for parasite-specific treatment.
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Biochemical characterization of Plasmodium falciparum CTP:phosphoethanolamine cytidylyltransferase shows that only one of the two cytidylyltransferase domains is active. Biochem J 2013. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20121480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The intra-erythrocytic proliferation of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum requires massive synthesis of PE (phosphatidylethanolamine) that together with phosphatidylcholine constitute the bulk of the malaria membrane lipids. PE is mainly synthesized de novo by the CDP:ethanolamine-dependent Kennedy pathway. We previously showed that inhibition of PE biosynthesis led to parasite death. In the present study we characterized PfECT [P. falciparum CTP:phosphoethanolamine CT (cytidylyltransferase)], which we identified as the rate-limiting step of the PE metabolic pathway in the parasite. The cellular localization and expression of PfECT along the parasite life cycle were studied using polyclonal antibodies. Biochemical analyses showed that the enzyme activity follows Michaelis–Menten kinetics. PfECT is composed of two CT domains separated by a linker region. Activity assays on recombinant enzymes upon site-directed mutagenesis revealed that the N-terminal CT domain was the only catalytically active domain of PfECT. Concordantly, three-dimensional homology modelling of PfECT showed critical amino acid differences between the substrate-binding sites of the two CT domains. PfECT was predicted to fold as an intramolecular dimer suggesting that the inactive C-terminal domain is important for dimer stabilization. Given the absence of PE synthesis in red blood cells, PfECT represents a potential antimalarial target opening the way for a rational conception of bioactive compounds.
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Wein S, Maynadier M, Bordat Y, Perez J, Maheshwari S, Bette-Bobillo P, Tran Van Ba C, Penarete-Vargas D, Fraisse L, Cerdan R, Vial H. Transport and pharmacodynamics of albitiazolium, an antimalarial drug candidate. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 166:2263-76. [PMID: 22471905 PMCID: PMC3437492 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01966.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Choline analogues, a new type of antimalarials, exert potent in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activity. This has given rise to albitiazolium, which is currently in phase II clinical trials to cure severe malaria. Here we dissected its mechanism of action step by step from choline entry into the infected erythrocyte to its effect on phosphatidylcholine (PC) biosynthesis. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH We biochemically unravelled the transport and enzymatic steps that mediate de novo synthesis of PC and elucidated how albitiazolium enters the intracellular parasites and affects the PC biosynthesis. KEY RESULTS Choline entry into Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes is achieved both by the remnant erythrocyte choline carrier and by parasite-induced new permeability pathways (NPP), while parasite entry involves a poly-specific cation transporter. Albitiazolium specifically prevented choline incorporation into its end-product PC, and its antimalarial activity was strongly antagonized by choline. Albitiazolium entered the infected erythrocyte mainly via a furosemide-sensitive NPP and was transported into the parasite by a poly-specific cation carrier. Albitiazolium competitively inhibited choline entry via the parasite-derived cation transporter and also, at a much higher concentration, affected each of the three enzymes conducting de novo synthesis of PC. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Inhibition of choline entry into the parasite appears to be the primary mechanism by which albitiazolium exerts its potent antimalarial effect. However, the pharmacological response to albitiazolium involves molecular interactions with different steps of the de novo PC biosynthesis pathway, which would help to delay the development of resistance to this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wein
- Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier, France
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Alam A, Goyal M, Iqbal MS, Pal C, Dey S, Bindu S, Maity P, Bandyopadhyay U. Novel antimalarial drug targets: hope for new antimalarial drugs. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2012; 2:469-89. [PMID: 22112223 DOI: 10.1586/ecp.09.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a major global threat, that results in more than 2 million deaths each year. The treatment of malaria is becoming extremely difficult due to the emergence of drug-resistant parasites, the absence of an effective vaccine, and the spread of insecticide-resistant vectors. Thus, malarial therapy needs new chemotherapeutic approaches leading to the search for new drug targets. Here, we discuss different approaches to identifying novel antimalarial drug targets. We have also given due attention to the existing validated targets with a view to develop novel, rationally designed lead molecules. Some of the important parasite proteins are claimed to be the targets; however, further in vitro or in vivo structure-function studies of such proteins are crucial to validate these proteins as suitable targets. The interactome analysis among apicoplast, mitochondrion and genomic DNA will also be useful in identifying vital pathways or proteins regulating critical pathways for parasite growth and survival, and could be attractive targets. Molecules responsible for parasite invasion to host erythrocytes and ion channels of infected erythrocytes, essential for intra-erythrocyte survival and stage progression of parasites are also becoming attractive targets. This review will discuss and highlight the current understanding regarding the potential antimalarial drug targets, which could be utilized to develop novel antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athar Alam
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, 4, Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Jadavpur, Kolkata-700032, West Bengal, India.
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15
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Degardin M, Wein S, Gouni S, Tran Van Ba C, Duckert JF, Durand T, Escale R, Vial H, Vo-Hoang Y. Evaluation of bis-alkylamidoxime O-alkylsulfonates as orally available antimalarials. ChemMedChem 2012; 7:991-1001. [PMID: 22544438 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201200112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The main threat to controlling malaria is the emerging multidrug resistance of Plasmodium sp. parasites. Bis-alkylamidines were developed as a potential new chemotherapy that targets plasmodial phospholipid metabolism. Unfortunately, these compounds are not orally available. To solve this absorption issue, we investigated a prodrug strategy based on sulfonate derivatives of alkylamidoximes. A total of 25 sulfonates were synthesized as prodrug candidates of one bis-N-alkylamidine and of six N-substituted bis-C-alkylamidines. Their antimalarial activities were evaluated in vitro against P. falciparum and in vivo against P. vinckei in mice to define structure-activity relationships. Small alkyl substituents on the sulfonate group of both C-alkyl- and N-alkylamidines led to the best oral antimalarial activities; alkylsulfonate derivatives are chemically transformed into the corresponding alkylamidines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélissa Degardin
- Institut des Biomolecules Max Mousseron, UMR 5247 CNRS-UMI-UMII, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, Université de Montpellier I, 15 avenue Charles Flahault, 34093 Montpellier, France
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16
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Margout D, Gattacceca F, Moarbess G, Wein S, Ba CTV, Le Pape S, Berger O, Escale R, Vial HJ, Bressolle FM. Pharmacokinetic properties and metabolism of a new potent antimalarial N-alkylamidine compound, M64, and its corresponding bioprecursors. Eur J Pharm Sci 2011; 42:81-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2010.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 10/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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Ibrahim HMS, Al-Salabi MI, El Sabbagh N, Quashie NB, Alkhaldi AAM, Escale R, Smith TK, Vial HJ, de Koning HP. Symmetrical choline-derived dications display strong anti-kinetoplastid activity. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 66:111-25. [PMID: 21078603 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkq401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES to investigate the anti-kinetoplastid activity of choline-derived analogues with previously reported antimalarial efficacy. METHODS from an existing choline analogue library, seven antimalarial compounds, representative of the first-, second- and third-generation analogues previously developed, were assessed for activity against Trypanosoma and Leishmania spp. Using a variety of techniques, the effects of choline analogue exposure on the parasites were documented and a preliminary investigation of their mode of action was performed. RESULTS the activities of choline-derived compounds against Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania mexicana were determined. The compounds displayed promising anti-kinetoplastid activity, particularly against T. brucei, to which 4/7 displayed submicromolar EC(50) values for the wild-type strain. Low micromolar concentrations of most compounds cleared trypanosome cultures within 24-48 h. The compounds inhibit a choline transporter in Leishmania, but their entry may not depend only on this carrier; T. b. brucei lacks a choline carrier and the mode of uptake remains unclear. The compounds had no effect on the overall lipid composition of the cells, cell cycle progression or cyclic adenosine monophosphate production or short-term effects on intracellular calcium levels. However, several of the compounds, displayed pronounced effects on the mitochondrial membrane potential; this action was not associated with production of reactive oxygen species but rather with a slow rise of intracellular calcium levels and DNA fragmentation. CONCLUSIONS the choline analogues displayed strong activity against kinetoplastid parasites, particularly against T. b. brucei. In contrast to their antimalarial activity, they did not act on trypanosomes by disrupting choline salvage or phospholipid metabolism, instead disrupting mitochondrial function, leading to chromosomal fragmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hasan M S Ibrahim
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
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18
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Caldarelli SA, Boisbrun M, Alarcon K, Hamzé A, Ouattara M, Salom-Roig X, Maynadier M, Wein S, Peyrottes S, Pellet A, Calas M, Vial H. Exploration of potential prodrug approach of the bis-thiazolium salts T3 and T4 for orally delivered antimalarials. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2010; 20:3953-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2010.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2010] [Revised: 04/30/2010] [Accepted: 05/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Caldarelli S, Duckert JF, Wein S, Calas M, Périgaud C, Vial H, Peyrottes S. Synthesis and Evaluation of Bis-Thiazolium Salts as Potential Antimalarial Drugs. ChemMedChem 2010; 5:1102-9. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201000097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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20
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Reliability of antimalarial sensitivity tests depends on drug mechanisms of action. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48:1651-60. [PMID: 20220159 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02250-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro antimalarial activity tests play a pivotal role in malaria drug research or for monitoring drug resistance in field isolates. We applied two isotopic tests, two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and the SYBR green I fluorescence-based assay, to test artesunate and chloroquine, the metabolic inhibitors atovaquone and pyrimethamine, our fast-acting choline analog T3/SAR97276, and doxycycline, which has a delayed death profile. Isotopic tests based on hypoxanthine and ethanolamine incorporation are the most reliable tests provided when they are applied after one full 48-h parasite cycle. The SYBR green assay, which measures the DNA content, usually requires 72 h of incubation to obtain reliable results. When delayed death is suspected, specific protocols are required with increasing incubation times up to 96 h. In contrast, both ELISA tests used (pLDH and HRP2) appear to be problematic, leading to disappointing and even erroneous results for molecules that do not share an artesunatelike profile. The reliability of these tests is linked to the mode of action of the drug, and the conditions required to get informative results are hard to predict. Our results suggest some minimal conditions to apply these tests that should give rise to a standard 50% inhibitory concentration, regardless of the mechanism of action of the compounds, and highlight that the most commonly used in vitro antimalarial activity tests do not have the same potential. Some of them might not detect the antimalarial potential of new classes of compounds with innovative modes of action, which subsequently could become promising new antimalarial drugs.
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Bobenchik AM, Choi JY, Mishra A, Rujan IN, Hao B, Voelker DR, Hoch JC, Mamoun CB. Identification of inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase using an enzyme-coupled transmethylation assay. BMC BIOCHEMISTRY 2010; 11:4. [PMID: 20085640 PMCID: PMC2824672 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2091-11-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase, PfPMT, of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, a member of a newly identified family of phosphoethanolamine methyltransferases (PMT) found solely in some protozoa, nematodes, frogs, and plants, is involved in the synthesis of the major membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine. PMT enzymes catalyze a three-step S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methylation of the nitrogen atom of phosphoethanolamine to form phosphocholine. In P. falciparum, this activity is a limiting step in the pathway of synthesis of phosphatidylcholine from serine and plays an important role in the development, replication and survival of the parasite within human red blood cells. RESULTS We have employed an enzyme-coupled methylation assay to screen for potential inhibitors of PfPMT. In addition to hexadecyltrimethylammonium, previously known to inhibit PfPMT, two compounds dodecyltrimethylammonium and amodiaquine were also found to inhibit PfPMT activity in vitro. Interestingly, PfPMT activity was not inhibited by the amodiaquine analog, chloroquine, or other aminoquinolines, amino alcohols, or histamine methyltransferase inhibitors. Using yeast as a surrogate system we found that unlike wild-type cells, yeast mutants that rely on PfPMT for survival were sensitive to amodiaquine, and their phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis was inhibited by this compound. Furthermore NMR titration studies to characterize the interaction between amoidaquine and PfPMT demonstrated a specific and concentration dependent binding of the compound to the enzyme. CONCLUSION The identification of amodiaquine as an inhibitor of PfPMT in vitro and in yeast, and the biophysical evidence for the specific interaction of the compound with the enzyme will set the stage for the development of analogs of this drug that specifically inhibit this enzyme and possibly other PMTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- April M Bobenchik
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, 333 Cedar St., New Haven, 06052, USA
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Ave., Farmington, 06030, USA
| | - Jae-Yeon Choi
- The Program in Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, 1400 Jackson St, Denver, 80206, USA
| | - Arunima Mishra
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Ave., Farmington, 06030, USA
| | - Iulian N Rujan
- Department of Molecular, Microbial, and Structural Biology University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Ave., Farmington, 06030, USA
| | - Bing Hao
- Department of Molecular, Microbial, and Structural Biology University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Ave., Farmington, 06030, USA
| | - Dennis R Voelker
- The Program in Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, 1400 Jackson St, Denver, 80206, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Hoch
- Department of Molecular, Microbial, and Structural Biology University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Ave., Farmington, 06030, USA
| | - Choukri Ben Mamoun
- Department of Internal Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Yale School of Medicine, 333 Cedar St., New Haven, 06052, USA
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Ortial S, Denoyelle SÃ, Wein S, Berger O, Durand T, Escale R, Pellet A, Vial H, Vo-Hoang Y. Synthesis and Evaluation of Hybrid Bis-cationic Salts as Antimalarial Drugs. ChemMedChem 2010; 5:52-5. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200900427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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23
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Margout D, Bontemps N, Kocken C, Vial H, Bressolle F. Rapid resolution liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry determination of SAR97276 in monkey matrices. Pharmacokinetics in rhesus monkey infected by Plasmodium cynomolgi. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2009; 49:1266-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2009.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2009] [Revised: 02/10/2009] [Accepted: 02/17/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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24
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Margout D, Wein S, Gandon H, Gattacceca F, Vial HJ, Bressolle FMM. Quantitation of SAR97276 in mouse tissues by rapid resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Sep Sci 2009; 32:1808-15. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200900059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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25
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Design and synthesis of amidoxime derivatives for orally potent C-alkylamidine-based antimalarial agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:624-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.12.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 12/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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26
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Taudon N, Margout D, Calas M, Kezutyte T, Vial HJ, Bressolle FMM. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry assay for simultaneous determination of two antimalarial thiazolium compounds in human and rat matrices. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2008; 48:1001-5. [PMID: 18678456 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2008.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2008] [Revised: 06/23/2008] [Accepted: 06/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A new class of antimalarial drugs targeting phospholipid metabolism of the malarial parasite is now in development. In the strategy of this development, two mono-thiazolium salts, T1 and T2, need to be monitored. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method has been developed and validated according to FDA guidelines for simultaneous determination of T1 and T2 in plasma, whole blood and red blood cells (RBCs) from human and rat. The sample-pre-treatment procedure involved solid phase extraction after protein precipitation. Chromatography was carried out on a Zorbax eclipse XDB C8 column and mass spectrometric analysis was performed using an Agilent 1,100 quadrupole mass spectrometer working with an electrospray ionization source. LC-MS data were acquired in single ion monitoring mode at m/z 312, 326 and 227 for T1, T2 and the internal standard (T3), respectively. The drug/internal standard peak area ratios were linked via a quadratic relationship to concentrations (human and rat plasma: 2.25-900 microg/l; human blood and rat RBCs: 4.5-900 microg/kg). Precision was below 14.5% for T1 and below 13% for T2. Accuracy was 92.6-111% for T1 and 95.6-108% for T2. Extraction recoveries were >or=85% in plasma and >or=53% in blood and RBCs. For T1 and T2, the lower limits of quantitation were 2.25 microg/l in plasma, and 4.5 microg/kg in whole blood and RBCs. Stability tests under various conditions were also investigated. This highly specific and sensitive method was useful to analyse samples from pharmacokinetic studies carried out in rat and would also be useful in clinical trials at a later stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Taudon
- Clinical Pharmacokinetic Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, 15 Avenue Charles Flahault, University Montpellier I, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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27
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Kohring K, Wiesner J, Altenkämper M, Sakowski J, Silber K, Hillebrecht A, Haebel P, Dahse HM, Ortmann R, Jomaa H, Klebe G, Schlitzer M. Development of Benzophenone-Based Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors as Novel Antimalarials. ChemMedChem 2008; 3:1217-31. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200800043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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28
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Monoquaternary ammonium derivatives inhibit growth of protozoan parasites. Parasitol Int 2008; 57:132-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2007.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Revised: 09/27/2007] [Accepted: 09/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Wiesner J, Ortmann R, Jomaa H, Schlitzer M. Double ester prodrugs of FR900098 display enhanced in-vitro antimalarial activity. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2008; 340:667-9. [PMID: 17994601 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.200700069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Fosmidomycin and FR900098 are inhibitors of the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR; IspC), a key enzyme of the mevalonate-independent isoprenoid biosynthesis pathway. We have determined the in-vitro antimalarial activity of two double ester prodrugs 2, 3 in direct comparison with the unmodified FR900098 1 against intraerythrocytic forms of Plasmodium falciparum. Temporarily masking the polar properties of the phosphonate moiety of the DXR inhibitor FR900098 1 enhanced not only its oral bioavailability but also the intrinsic activity of this series against the parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Wiesner
- Institut für Klinische Chemie und Pathobiochemie, Universitätsklinikum Giessen und Marburg GmbH, Giessen, Germany
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30
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Calas M, Ouattara M, Piquet G, Ziora Z, Bordat Y, Ancelin ML, Escale R, Vial H. Potent Antimalarial Activity of 2-Aminopyridinium Salts, Amidines, and Guanidines. J Med Chem 2007; 50:6307-15. [PMID: 18004799 DOI: 10.1021/jm0704752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michèle Calas
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Mahama Ouattara
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Gilles Piquet
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Zyta Ziora
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Y. Bordat
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Marie L. Ancelin
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Roger Escale
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
| | - Henri Vial
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM) CNRS UMR 5247, Université Montpellier 1, Faculté de Pharmacie, 15, Avenue C. Flahault, BP 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5 and Université Montpellier 2, Place E. Bataillon, CP19, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France, Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapeutique et Synthèse de Médicaments, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université dʼAbidjan-Cocody, BP V, 34 Abidjan, Côte dʼIvoire, and Dynamique des Interactions Membranaires Normales et Pathologiques, CNRS UMR 5235, CP 107,
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Kesavulu MM, Prakasha Gowda AS, Ramya TNC, Surolia N, Suguna K. Plasmepsin inhibitors: design, synthesis, inhibitory studies and crystal structure analysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 66:211-9. [PMID: 16138859 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.2005.00288.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Plasmepsin group of enzymes are key enzymes in the life cycle of malarial parasites. As inhibition of plasmepsins leads to the parasite's death, these enzymes can be utilized as potential drug targets. Although many drugs are available, it has been observed that Plasmodium falciparum, the species that causes most of the malarial infections and subsequent death, has developed resistance against most of the drugs. Based on the cleavage sites of hemglobin, the substrate for plasmepsins, we have designed two compounds (p-nitrobenzoyl-leucine-beta-alanine and p-nitrobenzoyl-leucine-isonipecotic acid), synthesized them, solved their crystal structures and studied their inhibitory effect using experimental and theoretical (docking) methods. In this paper, we discuss the synthesis, crystal structures and inhibitory nature of these two compounds which have a potential to inhibit plasmepsins.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Kesavulu
- Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
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32
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Taudon N, Margout D, Wein S, Calas M, Vial HJ, Bressolle FMM. Quantitative analysis of a bis-thiazolium antimalarial compound, SAR97276, in mouse plasma and red blood cell samples, using liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007; 46:148-56. [PMID: 18023551 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2007.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2007] [Accepted: 10/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and selective liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) method has been developed for the determination of a new antimalarial bisthiazolium salt, SAR97276, in mouse plasma and red blood cells (RBCs). A drug of the same chemical series as the test drug, T2, was used as internal standard. The method involved solid phase extraction of the compound and the internal standard from the two matrices using Oasis HLB columns. LC separation was performed on a Zorbax eclipse XDB C8 column (5 microm) with a mobile phase of acetonitrile containing trimethylamine (130 microl/l, solvent A) and 2 mM ammonium formate buffer (solvent B). MS data were acquired in single ion monitoring mode at m/z 227 for SAR97276 and m/z 326 for T2. The matrix had no influence on the detection of either SAR97276 or T2. The drug/internal standard peak area ratios were linked via quadratic relationships to plasma (1.65-1322 ng/ml) and RBC concentrations (3.31-2644 ng/ml). Precision was below 14% and accuracy was 91.4-104%. Dilution of the samples had no influence on the performance of the method. Extraction recoveries of SAR97276 were > or =90% in plasma and > or =60% in RBCs. The lower limits of quantitation were 1.65 ng/ml in plasma and 3.31 ng/ml in RBCs. Stability tests under various conditions were also investigated. The method was successfully used to determine the pharmacokinetic profile of SAR97276 in healthy mouse.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Taudon
- Clinical Pharmacokinetic Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, 15 Avenue Charles Flahault, University Montpellier I, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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Schlitzer M. Malaria Chemotherapeutics Part I: History of Antimalarial Drug Development, Currently Used Therapeutics, and Drugs in Clinical Development. ChemMedChem 2007; 2:944-86. [PMID: 17530725 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200600240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Since ancient times, humankind has had to struggle against the persistent onslaught of pathogenic microorganisms. Nowadays, malaria is still the most important infectious disease worldwide. Considerable success in gaining control over malaria was achieved in the 1950s and 60s through landscaping measures, vector control with the insecticide DDT, and the widespread administration of chloroquine, the most important antimalarial agent ever. In the late 1960s, the final victory over malaria was believed to be within reach. However, the parasites could not be eradicated because they developed resistance against the most widely used and affordable drugs of that time. Today, cases of malaria infections are on the rise and have reached record numbers. This review gives a short description of the malaria disease, briefly addresses the history of antimalarial drug development, and focuses on drugs currently available for malaria therapy. The present knowledge regarding their mode of action and the mechanisms of resistance are explained, as are the attempts made by numerous research groups to overcome the resistance problem within classes of existing drugs and in some novel classes. Finally, this review covers all classes of antimalarials for which at least one drug candidate is in clinical development. Antimalarial agents that are solely in early development stages will be addressed in a separate review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schlitzer
- Institut für Pharmazeutische Chemie, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marbacher Weg 6, 35032 Marburg, Germany.
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Vangapandu S, Jain M, Kaur K, Patil P, Patel SR, Jain R. Recent advances in antimalarial drug development. Med Res Rev 2007; 27:65-107. [PMID: 16700012 DOI: 10.1002/med.20062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Malaria caused by protozoa of the genus Plasmodium, because of its prevalence, virulence, and drug resistance, is the most serious and widespread parasitic disease encountered by mankind. The inadequate armory of drugs in widespread use for the treatment of malaria, development of strains resistant to commonly used drugs such as chloroquine, and the lack of affordable new drugs are the limiting factors in the fight against malaria. These factors underscore the continuing need of research for new classes of antimalarial agents, and a re-examination of the existing antimalarial drugs that may be effective against resistant strains. This review provides an in-depth look at the most significant progress made during the past 10 years in antimalarial drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suryanaryana Vangapandu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S.A.S. Nagar, Punjab 160 062, India
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35
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Richier E, Biagini GA, Wein S, Boudou F, Bray PG, Ward SA, Precigout E, Calas M, Dubremetz JF, Vial HJ. Potent antihematozoan activity of novel bisthiazolium drug T16: evidence for inhibition of phosphatidylcholine metabolism in erythrocytes infected with Babesia and Plasmodium spp. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50:3381-8. [PMID: 17005821 PMCID: PMC1610066 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00443-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A leading bisthiazolium drug, T16, designed to mimic choline, was shown to exert potent antibabesial activity, with 50% inhibitory concentrations of 28 and 7 nM against Babesia divergens and B. canis, respectively. T16 accumulated inside Babesia-infected erythrocytes (cellular accumulation ratio, >60) by a saturable process with an apparent K(m) of 0.65 microM. Subcellular fractionation of Babesia parasites revealed the accumulation of T16 into a low-density fraction, while in malaria-infected erythrocytes a significant fraction of the drug was associated with heme malaria pigment. T16 exerts an early and specific inhibition of the de novo biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine both in B. divergens- and Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes. Choline accumulation into isolated Babesia parasites was highly sensitive to inhibition by T16. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that bisthiazolium drugs target the de novo phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis of intraerythrocytic hematozoan parasites. In malaria parasites, which generate ferriprotoporphyrin IX during hemoglobin digestion, T16 binding to heme may enhance the accumulation and activity of the drug. The selectivity of accumulation and potent activity of this class of drug into parasite-infected erythrocytes offers unique advantages over more traditional antihematozoan drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Richier
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Unité Mixte de Recherche UMR 5539, CNRS University Montpellier II, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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36
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Choubey V, Maity P, Guha M, Kumar S, Srivastava K, Puri SK, Bandyopadhyay U. Inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum choline kinase by hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide: a possible antimalarial mechanism. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 51:696-706. [PMID: 17145794 PMCID: PMC1797733 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00919-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Choline kinase is the first enzyme in the Kennedy pathway (CDP-choline pathway) for the biosynthesis of the most essential phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine, in Plasmodium falciparum. In addition, choline kinase also plays a pivotal role in trapping essential polar head group choline inside the malaria parasite. Recently, Plasmodium falciparum choline kinase (PfCK) has been cloned, overexpressed, and purified. However, the function of this enzyme in parasite growth and survival has not been evaluated owing to the lack of a suitable inhibitor. Purified recombinant PfCK enabled us to identify an inhibitor of PfCK, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (HDTAB), which has a very close structural resemblance to hexadecylphosphocholine (miltefosin), the well-known antiproliferative and antileishmanial drug. HDTAB inhibited PfCK in a dose-dependent manner and offered very potent antimalarial activity in vitro against Plasmodium falciparum. Moreover, HDTAB exhibited profound antimalarial activity in vivo against the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium yoelii (N-67 strain). Interestingly, parasites at the trophozoite and schizont stages were found to be particularly sensitive to HDTAB. The stage-specific antimalarial effect of HDTAB correlated well with the expression pattern of PfCK in P. falciparum, which was observed by reverse transcription-PCR and immunofluorescence microscopy. Furthermore, the antimalarial activity of HDTAB paralleled the decrease in phosphatidylcholine content, which was found to correlate with the decreased phosphocholine generation. These results suggest that inhibition of choline kinase by HDTAB leads to decreased phosphocholine, which in turn causes a decrease in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis, resulting in death of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinay Choubey
- Division of Drug Target Discovery and Development, Central Drug Research Institute, Chatter Manzil Palace, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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37
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Ouattara M, Wein S, Calas M, Hoang YV, Vial H, Escale R. Synthesis and antimalarial activity of new 1,12-bis(N,N'-acetamidinyl)dodecane derivatives. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2006; 17:593-6. [PMID: 17123818 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2006.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2006] [Revised: 11/03/2006] [Accepted: 11/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Amidoxime and O-substituted derivatives of the bis-alkylamidine 1,12-bis(N,N'-acetamidinyl)dodecane were synthesized and evaluated as in vitro and in vivo antimalarial prodrugs. The bis-O-methylsulfonylamidoxime 8 and the bis-oxadiazolone 9 derivatives show relatively potent antimalarial activity after oral administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahama Ouattara
- Dynamique Moléculaire des Interactions Membranaires, UMR 5539, CNRS-Université de Montpellier II, 34095 Montpellier, France
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38
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Abstract
Every year, forty percent of the world population is at risk of contracting malaria. Hopes for the erradication of this disease during the 20th century were dashed by the ability of Plasmodium falciparum, its most deadly causative agent, to develop resistance to available drugs. Efforts to produce an effective vaccine have so far been unsuccessful, enhancing the need to develop novel antimalarial drugs. In this review, we summarize our knowledge concerning existing antimalarials, mechanisms of drug-resistance development, the use of drug combination strategies and the quest for novel anti-plasmodial compounds. We emphasize the potential role of host genes and molecules as novel targets for newly developed drugs. Recent results from our laboratory have shown Hepatocyte Growth Factor/MET signaling to be essential for the establishment of infection in hepatocytes. We discuss the potential use of this pathway in the prophylaxis of malaria infection.
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39
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Choubey V, Guha M, Maity P, Kumar S, Raghunandan R, Maulik PR, Mitra K, Halder UC, Bandyopadhyay U. Molecular characterization and localization of Plasmodium falciparum choline kinase. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2006; 1760:1027-38. [PMID: 16626864 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2006.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2005] [Revised: 02/24/2006] [Accepted: 03/01/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Generation of phosphocholine by choline kinase is important for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis via Kennedy pathway and phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis is essential for intraerythrocytic growth of malaria parasite. A putative gene (Gene ID PF14_0020) in chromosome 14, having highest sequence homology with choline kinase, has been identified by BLAST searches from P. falciparum genome sequence database. This gene has been PCR amplified, cloned, over-expressed and characterized. Choline kinase activity of the recombinant protein (PfCK) was validated as it catalyzed the formation of phosphocholine from choline in presence of ATP. The K(m) values for choline and ATP are found to be 145+/-20 microM and 2.5+/-0.3 mM, respectively. PfCK can phosphorylate choline efficiently but not ethanolamine. Southern blotting indicates that PfCK is a single copy gene and it is a cytosolic protein as evidenced by Western immunoblotting and confocal microscopy. A model structure of PfCK was constructed based on the crystal structure of choline kinase of C. elegans to search the structural homology. Consistent with the homology modeling predictions, CD analysis indicates that the alpha and beta content of PfCK are 33% and 14%, respectively. Since choline kinase plays a vital role for growth and multiplication of P. falciparum during intraerythrocytic stages, we can suggest that this well characterized PfCK may be exploited in the screening of new choline kinase inhibitors to evaluate their antimalarial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinay Choubey
- Division of Drug Target Discovery and Development, Central Drug Research Institute, Chatter Manzil Palace, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Lucknow-226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
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40
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Witola WH, Pessi G, El Bissati K, Reynolds JM, Mamoun CB. Localization of the phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum to the Golgi apparatus. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:21305-21311. [PMID: 16704982 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m603260200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylcholine is the most abundant phospholipid in the membranes of Plasmodium falciparum, the agent of severe human malaria. The synthesis of this phospholipid occurs via two routes, the CDP-choline pathway, which uses host choline as a precursor, and the plant-like serine decarboxylase-phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase (SDPM) pathway, which uses host serine as a precursor. Although various components of these pathways have been identified, their cellular locations remain unknown. We have previously reported the identification and characterization of the phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase, Pfpmt, of P. falciparum and shown that it plays a critical role in the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine via the SDPM pathway. Here we provide the first evidence that the transmethylation step of the SDPM pathway occurs in the parasite Golgi apparatus. We show that the level of Pfpmt protein in the infected erythrocyte is regulated in a stage-specific fashion, with high levels detected during the trophozoite stage at the peak of parasite membrane biogenesis. Confocal microscopy revealed that Pfpmt is not cytoplasmic. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that Pfpmt localizes to membrane structures that extend from the nuclear membrane but that it only partially co-localizes with the endoplasmic reticulum marker BiP. Using transgenic parasites expressing green fluorescent protein targeted to different cellular compartments, a complete co-localization was detected with Rab6, a marker of the Golgi apparatus. Together these studies provide the first evidence that the transmethylation step of the SDPM pathway of P. falciparum occurs in the Golgi apparatus and indicate an important role for this organelle in parasite membrane biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- William H Witola
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3301
| | - Gabriella Pessi
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3301
| | - Kamal El Bissati
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3301
| | - Jennifer M Reynolds
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3301
| | - Choukri Ben Mamoun
- Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030-3301.
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41
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Abstract
As an actively dividing organism, the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii must adjust the size and composition of its membranes in order to accommodate changes due to housekeeping activities, to commit division and in fine to produce new viable progenies. Lipid inventory of T. gondii reveals that the biological membranes of this parasite are composed of a complex mixture of neutral and polar lipids. After examination of the origin of T. gondii membrane lipids, three categories of lipids can be described: (i) lipids scavenged by T. gondii from the host cell; (ii) lipids synthesized in large amounts by the parasite, independently from its host cell; and (iii) lipids produced de novo by the parasite, but whose synthesis does not come close to satisfying the entire parasite's needs. These latter must be adeptly acquired from the host environment. To this end, T. gondii diverts a large variety of lipid precursors from host cytoplasm and efficiently manufacture them into complex lipids. This rather remarkable reliance on host lipid resources for parasite survival opens new avenues to restrict parasite growth. Indeed, parasite starvation can be induced upon deprivation from essential host lipids. Lipid analogues with anti-proliferative properties are voraciously taken up by the parasites, which results in parasite membrane defects, and ultimately death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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42
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Pessi G, Mamoun CB. Pathways for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis: targets and strategies for antimalarial drugs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.2217/17460875.1.2.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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43
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Nicolas O, Margout D, Taudon N, Wein S, Calas M, Vial HJ, Bressolle FMM. Pharmacological properties of a new antimalarial bisthiazolium salt, T3, and a corresponding prodrug, TE3. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49:3631-9. [PMID: 16127032 PMCID: PMC1195427 DOI: 10.1128/aac.49.9.3631-3639.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2005] [Revised: 05/25/2005] [Accepted: 06/06/2005] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A new approach to malarial chemotherapy based on quaternary ammonium that targets membrane biogenesis during intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum development has recently been developed. To increase the bioavailability, nonionic chemically modified prodrugs were synthesized. In this paper, the pharmacological properties of a bisthiazolium salt (T3) and its bioprecursor (TE3) were studied. Their antimalarial activities were determined in vitro against the growth of P. falciparum and in vivo against the growth of P. vinckei in mice. Pharmacokinetic evaluations were performed after T3 (1.3 and 3 mg/kg of body weight administered intravenously; 6.4 mg/kg administered intraperitoneally) and TE3 (1.5 and 3 mg/kg administered intravenously; 12 mg/kg administered orally) administrations to rats. After intraperitoneal administration, very low doses offer protection in a murine model of malaria (50% efficient dose [ED50] of 0.2 to 0.25 mg/kg). After oral administration, the ED50 values were 13 and 5 mg/kg for T3 and TE3, respectively. Both compounds exerted antimalarial activity in the low nanomolar range. After TE3 administration, rapid prodrug-drug conversion occurred; the mean values of the pharmacokinetic parameters for T3 were as follows: total clearance, 1 liter/h/kg; steady-state volume of distribution, 14.8 liters/kg; and elimination half-life, 12 h. After intravenous administration, T3 plasma concentrations increased in proportion to the dose. The absolute bioavailability was 72% after intraperitoneal administration (T3); it was 15% after oral administration (TE3). T3 plasma concentrations (8 nM) 24 h following oral administration of TE3 were higher than the 50% inhibitory concentrations for the most chloroquine-resistant strains of P. falciparum (6.3 nM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Nicolas
- Laboratoire de Pharmacocinétique Clinique, Faculté de Pharmacie, B.P. 14491, 34093 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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44
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Song J, Costa KAD, Fischer LM, Kohlmeier M, Kwock L, Wang S, Zeisel SH. Polymorphism of the PEMT gene and susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). FASEB J 2005; 19:1266-71. [PMID: 16051693 PMCID: PMC1256033 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-3580com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PEMT) catalyzes phosphatidylcholine synthesis. PEMT knockout mice have fatty livers, and it is possible that, in humans, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) might be associated with PEMT gene polymorphisms. DNA samples from 59 humans without fatty liver and from 28 humans with NAFLD were genotyped for a single nucleotide polymorphism in exon 8 of PEMT, which leads to a V175M substitution. V175M is a loss of function mutation, as determined by transiently transfecting McArdle-RH7777 cells with constructs of wild-type PEMT open reading frame or the V175M mutant. Met/Met at residue 175 (loss of function SNP) occurred in 67.9% of the NAFLD subjects and in only 40.7% of control subjects (P<0.03). For the first time we report that a polymorphism of the human PEMT gene (V175M) is associated with diminished activity and may confer susceptibility to NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiannan Song
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
| | - Kerry Ann da Costa
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
| | - Leslie M. Fischer
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
| | - Martin Kohlmeier
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
| | - Lester Kwock
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
| | - Shuli Wang
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
| | - Steven H. Zeisel
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, US, 27599
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45
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Biagini GA, Ward SA, Bray PG. Malaria parasite transporters as a drug-delivery strategy. Trends Parasitol 2005; 21:299-301. [PMID: 15923144 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2005.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2004] [Revised: 03/10/2005] [Accepted: 05/13/2005] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The recent characterization of the choline carrier of the malaria parasite and its role in the selective delivery of novel antimalarial drugs has reignited interest in parasite transporters as a drug-delivery strategy. In this article, we discuss these findings in relation to the wider context of developing a sustainable antimalarial-drug-development portfolio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giancarlo A Biagini
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK, L35 QA.
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46
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Hamzé A, Rubi E, Arnal P, Boisbrun M, Carcel C, Salom-Roig X, Maynadier M, Wein S, Vial H, Calas M. Mono- and bis-thiazolium salts have potent antimalarial activity. J Med Chem 2005; 48:3639-43. [PMID: 15887971 DOI: 10.1021/jm0492608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Three new series comprising 24 novel cationic choline analogues and consisting of mono- or bis (N or C-5-duplicated) thiazolium salts have been synthesized. Bis-thiazolium salts showed potent antimalarial activity (much superior to monothiazoliums). Among them, bis-thiazolium salts 12 and 13 exhibited IC(50) values of 2.25 nM and 0.65 nM, respectively, against P. falciparum in vitro. These compounds also demonstrated good in vivo activity (ED(50) </= 0.22 mg/kg), and low toxicity in mice infected by Plasmodium vinckei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdallah Hamzé
- Laboratoire des Amino acides Peptides et Protéines (LAPP) CNRS-UMR 5810, CP 19, Université Montpellier I, Place E. Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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47
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Pessi G, Choi JY, Reynolds JM, Voelker DR, Mamoun CB. In Vivo Evidence for the Specificity of Plasmodium falciparum Phosphoethanolamine Methyltransferase and Its Coupling to the Kennedy Pathway. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:12461-6. [PMID: 15664981 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m414626200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Unlike humans and yeast, Plasmodium falciparum, the agent of the most severe form of human malaria, utilizes host serine as a precursor for the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine via a plant-like pathway involving phosphoethanolamine methylation. The monopartite phosphoethanolamine methyltransferase, Pfpmt, plays an important role in the biosynthetic pathway of this major phospholipid by providing the precursor phosphocholine via a three-step S-adenosyl-L-methionine-dependent methylation of phosphoethanolamine. In vitro studies showed that Pfpmt has strong specificity for phosphoethanolamine. However, the in vivo substrate (phosphoethanolamine or phosphatidylethanolamine) is not yet known. We used yeast as a surrogate system to express Pfpmt and provide genetic and biochemical evidence demonstrating the specificity of Pfpmt for phosphoethanolamine in vivo. Wild-type yeast cells, which inherently lack phosphoethanolamine methylation, acquire this activity as a result of expression of Pfpmt. The Pfpmt restores the ability of a yeast mutant pem1Deltapem2Delta lacking the phosphatidylethanolamine methyltransferase genes to grow in the absence of choline. Lipid analysis of the Pfpmt-complemented pem1Deltapem2Delta strain demonstrates the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine but not the intermediates of phosphatidylethanolamine transmethylation. Complementation of the pem1Deltapem2Delta mutant relies on specific methylation of phosphoethanolamine but not phosphatidylethanolamine. Interestingly, a mutation in the yeast choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase gene abrogates the complementation by Pfpmt thus demonstrating that Pfpmt activity is directly coupled to the Kennedy pathway for the de novo synthesis of phosphatidylcholine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Pessi
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis and Department of Genetics and Developmental Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06030, USA
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48
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Gupta N, Zahn MM, Coppens I, Joiner KA, Voelker DR. Selective Disruption of Phosphatidylcholine Metabolism of the Intracellular Parasite Toxoplasma gondii Arrests Its Growth. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:16345-53. [PMID: 15708856 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m501523200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular protozoan parasite capable of causing devastating infections in immunocompromised and immunologically immature individuals. In this report, we demonstrate the relative independence of T. gondii from its host cell for aminoglycerophospholipid synthesis. The parasite can acquire the lipid precursors serine, ethanolamine, and choline from its environment and use them for the synthesis of its major lipids, phosphatidylserine (PtdSer), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), and phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), respectively. Dimethylethanolamine (Etn(Me)(2)), a choline analog, dramatically interfered with the PtdCho metabolism of T. gondii and caused a marked inhibition of its growth within human foreskin fibroblasts. In tissue culture medium supplemented with 2 mm Etn(Me)(2), the parasite-induced lysis of the host cells was dramatically attenuated, and the production of parasites was inhibited by more than 99%. The disruption of parasite growth was paralleled by structural abnormalities in its membranes. In contrast, no negative effect on host cell growth and morphology was observed. The data also reveal that the Etn(Me)(2)-supplemented parasite had a time-dependent decrease in its PtdCho content and an equivalent increase in phosphatidyldimethylethanolamine, whereas other major lipids, PtdSer, PtdEtn, and PtdIns, remained largely unchanged. Relative to host cells, the parasites incorporated more than 7 times as much Etn(Me)(2) into their phospholipid. These findings reveal that Etn(Me)(2) selectively alters parasite lipid metabolism and demonstrate how selective inhibition of PtdCho synthesis is a powerful approach to arresting parasite growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nishith Gupta
- Program in Cell Biology, Department of Medicine, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, Denver, Colorado 80206, USA
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Ralph SA, van Dooren GG, Waller RF, Crawford MJ, Fraunholz MJ, Foth BJ, Tonkin CJ, Roos DS, McFadden GI. Tropical infectious diseases: metabolic maps and functions of the Plasmodium falciparum apicoplast. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 2:203-16. [PMID: 15083156 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 432] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stuart A Ralph
- Institut Pasteur, Biology of Host-Parasite Interactions, 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris, Cedex 15, France
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Nicolas O, Farenc C, Calas M, Vial HJ, Bressolle F. Quantification of Antimalarial Bisthiazolium Compounds and Their Neutral Bioprecursors in Plasma by Liquid Chromatography-Electrospray Mass Spectrometry. Clin Chem 2005; 51:593-602. [PMID: 15637133 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2004.042580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background: A new class of antimalarial drugs targeting membrane biogenesis during intraerythrocytic Plasmodium falciparum development has been identified. The bisthiazolium salts T3 and T4 have superior in vitro and in vivo parasite-killing properties and need to be monitored.
Methods: We used a liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization mass spectrometry method (positive mode) to quantify two bisthiazolium compounds (T3 and T4) and a related prodrug (TE4c) in human and rat plasma. Verapamil was used as internal standard. Verapamil and the TE4c compound were characterized by protonated molecules at m/z 455.7 and m/z 725.7, respectively. T3 and T4 were detected through two ions [M2+/2] at m/z 227.7 and m/z 241.8 and by their adducts with trifluoroacetic acid [M+TFA]+ at m/z 568 and m/z 596, respectively. The sample clean-up procedure involved solid-phase extraction. HPLC separation was performed on a reversed-phase column, using a water–acetonitrile gradient, with both solvents containing TFA. Stability under various conditions was also investigated.
Results: The peak-area ratios (drugs/internal standard) were linked to concentrations (6.4–1282 μg/L for T3; 6.5–1309.8 μg/L for T4; 20–2000 μg/L for TE4c) according to a quadratic equation. The accuracy ranged from 85% to 113.1%, and the imprecision from 2.2% to 15%. The mean extraction recoveries were 87%, 98%, and 80% for T3, T4, and TE4c, respectively. The lower limit of quantification was 6.4 μg/L for the two bisthiazolium compounds, whereas it was 20 μg/L for TE4c, the related lipophilic prodrug.
Conclusion: This highly specific and sensitive method is suitable for analyzing samples collected during preclinical pharmacokinetic studies in rats and to determine the percentage binding of T3 and T4 to human plasma proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Nicolas
- Clinical Pharmacokinetic Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmacy, University Montpellier I, Montpellier, France
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