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Motch Perrine SM, Sapkota N, Kawasaki K, Zhang Y, Chen DZ, Kawasaki M, Durham EL, Heuzé Y, Legeai-Mallet L, Richtsmeier JT. Embryonic cranial cartilage defects in the Fgfr3 Y367C /+ mouse model of achondroplasia. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023. [PMID: 37747411 PMCID: PMC10961250 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Achondroplasia, the most common chondrodysplasia in humans, is caused by one of two gain of function mutations localized in the transmembrane domain of fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) leading to constitutive activation of FGFR3 and subsequent growth plate cartilage and bone defects. Phenotypic features of achondroplasia include macrocephaly with frontal bossing, midface hypoplasia, disproportionate shortening of the extremities, brachydactyly with trident configuration of the hand, and bowed legs. The condition is defined primarily on postnatal effects on bone and cartilage, and embryonic development of tissues in affected individuals is not well studied. Using the Fgfr3Y367C/+ mouse model of achondroplasia, we investigated the developing chondrocranium and Meckel's cartilage (MC) at embryonic days (E)14.5 and E16.5. Sparse hand annotations of chondrocranial and MC cartilages visualized in phosphotungstic acid enhanced three-dimensional (3D) micro-computed tomography (microCT) images were used to train our automatic deep learning-based 3D segmentation model and produce 3D isosurfaces of the chondrocranium and MC. Using 3D coordinates of landmarks measured on the 3D isosurfaces, we quantified differences in the chondrocranium and MC of Fgfr3Y367C/+ mice relative to those of their unaffected littermates. Statistically significant differences in morphology and growth of the chondrocranium and MC were found, indicating direct effects of this Fgfr3 mutation on embryonic cranial and pharyngeal cartilages, which in turn can secondarily affect cranial dermal bone development. Our results support the suggestion that early therapeutic intervention during cartilage formation may lessen the effects of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nishchal Sapkota
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Kazuhiko Kawasaki
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yejia Zhang
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Danny Z Chen
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Mizuho Kawasaki
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Emily L Durham
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Human Genetics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Yann Heuzé
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Ministère de la Culture, PACEA, UMR 5199, Pessac, France
| | - Laurence Legeai-Mallet
- Université de Paris Cité, Imagine Institute, Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, Paris, France
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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2
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Jones E, McLaughlin KA. A Novel Perspective on Neuronal Control of Anatomical Patterning, Remodeling, and Maintenance. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:13358. [PMID: 37686164 PMCID: PMC10488252 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241713358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
While the nervous system may be best known as the sensory communication center of an organism, recent research has revealed a myriad of multifaceted roles for both the CNS and PNS from early development to adult regeneration and remodeling. These systems work to orchestrate tissue pattern formation during embryonic development and continue shaping pattering through transitional periods such as metamorphosis and growth. During periods of injury or wounding, the nervous system has also been shown to influence remodeling and wound healing. The neuronal mechanisms responsible for these events are largely conserved across species, suggesting this evidence may be important in understanding and resolving many human defects and diseases. By unraveling these diverse roles, this paper highlights the necessity of broadening our perspective on the nervous system beyond its conventional functions. A comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions and contributions of the nervous system throughout development and adulthood has the potential to revolutionize therapeutic strategies and open new avenues for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. This review highlights an important role for the nervous system during the patterning and maintenance of complex tissues and provides a potential avenue for advancing biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelly A. McLaughlin
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, 200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4700, Medford, MA 02155, USA;
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3
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Hoshino Y, Takechi M, Moazen M, Steacy M, Koyabu D, Furutera T, Ninomiya Y, Nuri T, Pauws E, Iseki S. Synchondrosis fusion contributes to the progression of postnatal craniofacial dysmorphology in syndromic craniosynostosis. J Anat 2023; 242:387-401. [PMID: 36394990 PMCID: PMC9919486 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Syndromic craniosynostosis (CS) patients exhibit early, bony fusion of calvarial sutures and cranial synchondroses, resulting in craniofacial dysmorphology. In this study, we chronologically evaluated skull morphology change after abnormal fusion of the sutures and synchondroses in mouse models of syndromic CS for further understanding of the disease. We found fusion of the inter-sphenoid synchondrosis (ISS) in Apert syndrome model mice (Fgfr2S252W/+ ) around 3 weeks old as seen in Crouzon syndrome model mice (Fgfr2cC342Y/+ ). We then examined ontogenic trajectories of CS mouse models after 3 weeks of age using geometric morphometrics analyses. Antero-ventral growth of the face was affected in Fgfr2S252W/+ and Fgfr2cC342Y/+ mice, while Saethre-Chotzen syndrome model mice (Twist1+/- ) did not show the ISS fusion and exhibited a similar growth pattern to that of control littermates. Further analysis revealed that the coronal suture synostosis in the CS mouse models induces only the brachycephalic phenotype as a shared morphological feature. Although previous studies suggest that the fusion of the facial sutures during neonatal period is associated with midface hypoplasia, the present study suggests that the progressive postnatal fusion of the cranial synchondrosis also contributes to craniofacial dysmorphology in mouse models of syndromic CS. These morphological trajectories increase our understanding of the progression of syndromic CS skull growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukiko Hoshino
- Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan.,Office of New Drug V, Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Takechi
- Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Anatomy and Life Structure, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mehran Moazen
- Department of UCL Mechanical Engineering, University College London, London, UK
| | - Miranda Steacy
- Institute of Child Health, Great Ormond Street, University College London, London, UK
| | - Daisuke Koyabu
- Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan.,Research and Development Center for Precision Medicine, Tsukuba University, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Toshiko Furutera
- Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Anatomy and Life Structure, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Youichirou Ninomiya
- Research Organization of Information and Systems, National Institute of Informatics, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Nuri
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Osaka Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Erwin Pauws
- Institute of Child Health, Great Ormond Street, University College London, London, UK
| | - Sachiko Iseki
- Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
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4
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Tokita M, Sato H. Creating morphological diversity in reptilian temporal skull region: A review of potential developmental mechanisms. Evol Dev 2023; 25:15-31. [PMID: 36250751 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Reptilian skull morphology is highly diverse and broadly categorized into three categories based on the number and position of the temporal fenestrations: anapsid, synapsid, and diapsid. According to recent phylogenetic analysis, temporal fenestrations evolved twice independently in amniotes, once in Synapsida and once in Diapsida. Although functional aspects underlying the evolution of tetrapod temporal fenestrations have been well investigated, few studies have investigated the developmental mechanisms responsible for differences in the pattern of temporal skull region. To determine what these mechanisms might be, we first examined how the five temporal bones develop by comparing embryonic cranial osteogenesis between representative extant reptilian species. The pattern of temporal skull region may depend on differences in temporal bone growth rate and growth direction during ontogeny. Next, we compared the histogenesis patterns and the expression of two key osteogenic genes, Runx2 and Msx2, in the temporal region of the representative reptilian embryos. Our comparative analyses suggest that the embryonic histological condition of the domain where temporal fenestrations would form predicts temporal skull morphology in adults and regulatory modifications of Runx2 and Msx2 expression in osteogenic mesenchymal precursor cells are likely involved in generating morphological diversity in the temporal skull region of reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayoshi Tokita
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiromu Sato
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
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5
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Zhang C, Porto A, Rolfe S, Kocatulum A, Maga AM. Automated landmarking via multiple templates. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278035. [PMID: 36454982 PMCID: PMC9714854 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Manually collecting landmarks for quantifying complex morphological phenotypes can be laborious and subject to intra and interobserver errors. However, most automated landmarking methods for efficiency and consistency fall short of landmarking highly variable samples due to the bias introduced by the use of a single template. We introduce a fast and open source automated landmarking pipeline (MALPACA) that utilizes multiple templates for accommodating large-scale variations. We also introduce a K-means method of choosing the templates that can be used in conjunction with MALPACA, when no prior information for selecting templates is available. Our results confirm that MALPACA significantly outperforms single-template methods in landmarking both single and multi-species samples. K-means based template selection can also avoid choosing the worst set of templates when compared to random template selection. We further offer an example of post-hoc quality check for each individual template for further refinement. In summary, MALPACA is an efficient and reproducible method that can accommodate large morphological variability, such as those commonly found in evolutionary studies. To support the research community, we have developed open-source and user-friendly software tools for performing K-means multi-templates selection and MALPACA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi Zhang
- Center for Development Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Arthur Porto
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
- Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Sara Rolfe
- Center for Development Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Friday Harbor Laboratories, University of Washington, San Juan Island, Washington, United States of America
| | - Altan Kocatulum
- Alfred University, Alfred, New York, United States of America
| | - A. Murat Maga
- Center for Development Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Division of Craniofacial Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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6
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Motch Perrine SM, Pitirri MK, Durham EL, Kawasaki M, Zheng H, Chen DZ, Kawasaki K, Richtsmeier JT. A dysmorphic mouse model reveals developmental interactions of chondrocranium and dermatocranium. eLife 2022; 11:76653. [PMID: 35704354 PMCID: PMC9259032 DOI: 10.7554/elife.76653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The cranial endo- and dermal skeletons, which comprise the vertebrate skull, evolved independently over 470 million years ago and form separately during embryogenesis. In mammals, much of the cartilaginous chondrocranium is transient, undergoing endochondral ossification or disappearing, so its role in skull morphogenesis is not well studied and it remains an enigmatic structure. We provide complete three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of the laboratory mouse chondrocranium from embryonic day 13.5 through 17.5 using a novel methodology of uncertainty-guided segmentation of phosphotungstic enhanced 3D microcomputed tomography images with sparse annotation. We evaluate the embryonic mouse chondrocranium and dermatocranium in 3D and delineate the effects of a Fgfr2 variant on embryonic chondrocranial cartilages and on their association with forming dermal bones using the Fgfr2cC342Y/+ Crouzon syndrome mouse. We show that the dermatocranium develops outside of and in shapes that conform to the chondrocranium. Results reveal direct effects of the Fgfr2 variant on embryonic cartilage, on chondrocranium morphology, and on the association between chondrocranium and dermatocranium development. Histologically we observe a trend of relatively more chondrocytes, larger chondrocytes, and/or more matrix in the Fgfr2cC342Y/+ embryos at all timepoints before the chondrocranium begins to disintegrate at E16.5. The chondrocrania and forming dermatocrania of Fgfr2cC342Y/+ embryos are relatively large, but a contrasting trend begins at E16.5 and continues into early postnatal (P0 and P2) timepoints, with the skulls of older Fgfr2cC342Y/+ mice reduced in most dimensions compared to Fgfr2c+/+ littermates. Our findings have implications for the study and treatment of human craniofacial disease, for understanding the impact of chondrocranial morphology on skull growth, and potentially on the evolution of skull morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
| | - M Kathleen Pitirri
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
| | - Emily L Durham
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
| | - Mizuho Kawasaki
- Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
| | - Hao Zheng
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, United States
| | - Danny Z Chen
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, United States
| | - Kazuhiko Kawasaki
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, United States
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7
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Abstract
SUMMARY Facial sutures contribute significantly to postnatal facial development, but their potential role in craniofacial disease is understudied. Since interest in their development and physiology peaked in the mid-twentieth century, facial sutures have not garnered nearly the same clinical research interest as calvarial sutures or cranial base endochondral articulations. In addition to reinforcing the complex structure of the facial skeleton, facial sutures absorb mechanical stress and generally remain patent into and beyond adolescence, as they mediate growth and refine the shape of facial bones. However, premature closure of these sites of postnatal osteogenesis leads to disrupted growth vectors and consequent dysmorphologies. Although abnormality in individual sutures results in isolated facial deformities, we posit that generalized abnormality across multiple sutures may be involved in complex craniofacial conditions such as syndromic craniosynostosis. In this work, the authors comprehensively review 27 key facial sutures, including physiologic maturation and closure, contributions to postnatal facial development, and clinical consequences of premature closure.
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8
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Holmes G, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Saturne M, Motch Perrine SM, Zhou X, Borges AC, Shewale B, Richtsmeier JT, Zhang B, van Bakel H, Jabs EW. Single-cell analysis identifies a key role for Hhip in murine coronal suture development. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7132. [PMID: 34880220 PMCID: PMC8655033 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27402-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Craniofacial development depends on formation and maintenance of sutures between bones of the skull. In sutures, growth occurs at osteogenic fronts along the edge of each bone, and suture mesenchyme separates adjacent bones. Here, we perform single-cell RNA-seq analysis of the embryonic, wild type murine coronal suture to define its population structure. Seven populations at E16.5 and nine at E18.5 comprise the suture mesenchyme, osteogenic cells, and associated populations. Expression of Hhip, an inhibitor of hedgehog signaling, marks a mesenchymal population distinct from those of other neurocranial sutures. Tracing of the neonatal Hhip-expressing population shows that descendant cells persist in the coronal suture and contribute to calvarial bone growth. In Hhip-/- coronal sutures at E18.5, the osteogenic fronts are closely apposed and the suture mesenchyme is depleted with increased hedgehog signaling compared to those of the wild type. Collectively, these data demonstrate that Hhip is required for normal coronal suture development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Holmes
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
| | - Ana S. Gonzalez-Reiche
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Madrikha Saturne
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Susan M. Motch Perrine
- grid.29857.310000 0001 2097 4281Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Xianxiao Zhou
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Ana C. Borges
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Bhavana Shewale
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Cell, Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Joan T. Richtsmeier
- grid.29857.310000 0001 2097 4281Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Harm van Bakel
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Icahn Institute for Data Science and Genomic Technology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Ethylin Wang Jabs
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Cell, Developmental and Regenerative Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Pediatrics, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA ,grid.21107.350000 0001 2171 9311Department of Genetic Medicine and Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
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9
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Wang MM, Haveles CS, Zukotynski BK, Reid RR, Lee JC. Facial Suture Pathology in Syndromic Craniosynostosis: Human and Animal Studies. Ann Plast Surg 2021; 87:589-599. [PMID: 34699435 PMCID: PMC8667083 DOI: 10.1097/sap.0000000000002822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Facial deformities in syndromic craniosynostosis are not only functionally, psychosocially, and aesthetically impairing but also notoriously challenging to reconstruct. Whether facial suture synostosis plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of these deformities is inadequately studied in human patients. METHODS The MEDLINE database was queried using a methodologically generated search term inventory. Article inclusion was adjudicated by 2 authors after independent review. Articles provided insight into facial suture involvement in either syndromic craniosynostosis patients or animal models of disease. RESULTS Comprehensive review yielded 19 relevant articles meeting inclusion criteria. Mid-20th century craniofacial biologists characterized how patent facial sutures are essential for normal postnatal facial development. They also posited that premature ossification disrupts growth vectors, causing significant dysmorphologies. Recently, facial suture synostosis was found to cause midfacial deformities independent of cranial base pathology in mouse models of syndromic craniosynostosis. Few recent studies have begun exploring facial suture involvement in patients, and although they have paved the way for future research, they bear significant limitations. CONCLUSIONS The hypothesis that facial suture synostosis acts in conjunction with cranial base pathology to produce the prominent, multifocal facial deformities in syndromic craniosynostosis may fundamentally alter surgical management and warrants further investigation. Methodically evaluating the literature, this review synthesizes all basic science and human clinical research thus far on the role of facial sutures in syndromic craniosynostosis and elucidates important topics for future research. We ultimately identify the need for rigorous imaging studies that longitudinally evaluate facial osteology across patients with various craniosynostosis syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell M. Wang
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Christos S. Haveles
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Brian K. Zukotynski
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Russell R. Reid
- Section of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Justine C. Lee
- Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery; University of California, Los Angeles, California
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10
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Kim BS, Shin HR, Kim HJ, Yoon H, Cho YD, Choi KY, Choi JY, Kim WJ, Ryoo HM. Septal chondrocyte hypertrophy contributes to midface deformity in a mouse model of Apert syndrome. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7979. [PMID: 33846505 PMCID: PMC8041873 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87260-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Midface hypoplasia is a major manifestation of Apert syndrome. However, the tissue component responsible for midface hypoplasia has not been elucidated. We studied mice with a chondrocyte-specific Fgfr2S252W mutation (Col2a1-cre; Fgfr2S252W/+) to investigate the effect of cartilaginous components in midface hypoplasia of Apert syndrome. In Col2a1-cre; Fgfr2S252W/+ mice, skull shape was normal at birth, but hypoplastic phenotypes became evident with age. General dimensional changes of mutant mice were comparable with those of mice with mutations in EIIa-cre; Fgfr2S252W/+, a classic model of Apert syndrome in mice. Col2a1-cre; Fgfr2S252W/+ mice showed some unique facial phenotypes, such as elevated nasion, abnormal fusion of the suture between the premaxilla and the vomer, and decreased perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone volume, which are related to the development of the nasal septal cartilage. Morphological and histological examination revealed that the presence of increased septal chondrocyte hypertrophy and abnormal thickening of nasal septum is causally related to midface deformities in nasal septum-associated structures. Our results suggest that careful examination and surgical correction of the nasal septal cartilage may improve the prognosis in the surgical treatment of midface hypoplasia and respiratory problems in patients with Apert syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bong-Soo Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hye-Rim Shin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyun-Jung Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Heein Yoon
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Young-Dan Cho
- Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kang-Young Choi
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Je-Yong Choi
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Cell and Matrix Research Institute, Skeletal Disease Analysis Center, Korea Mouse Phenotyping Center (KMPC), School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Woo-Jin Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
| | - Hyun-Mo Ryoo
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
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11
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de Vries M, Carpinelli M, Rutland E, Hatzipantelis A, Partridge D, Auden A, Anderson PJ, De Groef B, Wu H, Osterwalder M, Visel A, Jane SM, Dworkin S. Interrogating the Grainyhead-like 2 (Grhl2) genomic locus identifies an enhancer element that regulates palatogenesis in mouse. Dev Biol 2020; 459:194-203. [PMID: 31782997 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2019.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The highly-conserved Grainyhead-like (Grhl) transcription factors are critical regulators of embryogenesis that regulate cellular survival, proliferation, migration and epithelial integrity, especially during the formation of the craniofacial skeleton. Family member Grhl2 is expressed throughout epithelial tissues during development, and loss of Grhl2 function leads to significant defects in neurulation, abdominal wall closure, formation of the face and fusion of the maxilla/palate. Whereas numerous downstream target genes of Grhl2 have been identified, very little is known about how this crucial developmental transcription factor itself is regulated. Here, using in silico and in utero expression analyses and functional deletion in mice, we have identified a novel 2.4 kb enhancer element (mm1286) that drives reporter gene expression in a pattern that strongly recapitulates endogenous Grhl2 in the craniofacial primordia, modulates Grhl2 expression in these tissues, and augments Grhl2-mediated closure of the secondary palate. Deletion of this genomic element, in the context of inactivation of one allele of Grhl2 (through generation of double heterozygous Grhl2+/-;mm1286+/- mice), results in a significant predisposition to palatal clefting at birth. Moreover, we found that a highly conserved 325 bp region of mm1286 is both necessary and sufficient for mediating the craniofacial-specific enhancer activity of this region, and that an extremely well-conserved 12-bp sequence within this element (CTGTCAAACAGGT) substantially determines full enhancer function. Together, these data provide valuable new insights into the upstream genomic regulatory landscape responsible for transcriptional control of Grhl2 during palatal closure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael de Vries
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia; Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3086, Australia
| | - Marina Carpinelli
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Emilie Rutland
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Aaron Hatzipantelis
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Darren Partridge
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Alana Auden
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Peter J Anderson
- Australian Craniofacial Unit, Women and Children's Hospital, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia; Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, PR China
| | - Bert De Groef
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3086, Australia
| | - Han Wu
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Marco Osterwalder
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Axel Visel
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA; U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA; School of Natural Sciences, University of California, Merced, CA, 95343, USA
| | - Stephen M Jane
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - Sebastian Dworkin
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3086, Australia.
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12
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Kim B, Shin H, Kim W, Kim H, Cho Y, Yoon H, Baek J, Woo K, Lee Y, Ryoo H. PIN1 Attenuation Improves Midface Hypoplasia in a Mouse Model of Apert Syndrome. J Dent Res 2019; 99:223-232. [PMID: 31869252 DOI: 10.1177/0022034519893656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Premature fusion of the cranial suture and midface hypoplasia are common features of syndromic craniosynostosis caused by mutations in the FGFR2 gene. The only treatment for this condition involves a series of risky surgical procedures designed to correct defects in the craniofacial bones, which must be performed until brain growth has been completed. Several pharmacologic interventions directed at FGFR2 downstream signaling have been tested as potential treatments for premature coronal suture fusion in a mouse model of Apert syndrome. However, there are no published studies that have targeted for the pharmacologic treatment of midface hypoplasia. We used Fgfr2S252W/+ knock-in mice as a model of Apert syndrome and morphometric analyses to identify causal hypoplastic sites in the midface region. Three-dimensional geometric and linear analyses of Fgfr2S252W/+ mice at postnatal day 0 demonstrated distinct morphologic variance. The premature fusion of anterior facial bones, such as the maxilla, nasal, and frontal bones, rather than the cranium or cranial base, is the main contributing factor toward the anterior-posterior skull length shortening. The cranial base of the mouse model had a noticeable downward slant around the intersphenoid synchondrosis, which is related to distortion of the airway. Within a skull, the facial shape variance was highly correlated with the cranial base angle change along Fgfr2 S252W mutation-induced craniofacial anomalies. The inhibition of an FGFR2 downstream signaling enzyme, PIN1, via genetic knockdown or use of a PIN1 inhibitor, juglone, attenuated the aforementioned deformities in a mouse model of Apert syndrome. Overall, these results indicate that FGFR2 signaling is a key contributor toward abnormal anterior-posterior dimensional growth in the midface region. Our study suggests a novel therapeutic option for the prevention of craniofacial malformations induced by mutations in the FGFR2 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H Shin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - W Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H Kim
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Y Cho
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Periodontology, School of Dentistry and Dental Research Institute, BK21 Program, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H Yoon
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - J Baek
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - K Woo
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Y Lee
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - H Ryoo
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Dental Pharmacology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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13
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Jiang Q, Mei L, Zou Y, Ding Q, Cannon R, Chen H, Li H. Genetic Polymorphisms in FGFR2 Underlie Skeletal Malocclusion. J Dent Res 2019; 98:1340-1347. [DOI: 10.1177/0022034519872951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 ( FGFR2) in craniofacial bones mediates osteoprogenitor proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The distortion of proper craniofacial bone growth may cause class II and class III skeletal malocclusion and result in compromised function and aesthetics. Here, we investigated the association between variations in FGFR2 and skeletal malocclusions. First, 895 subjects were included in a 2-stage case-control study with independent populations (stage 1: n = 138 class I, 111 class II, and 81 class III; stage 2: n = 279 class I, 187 class II, and 99 class III). Eight candidate single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in FGFR2 were screened and validated. Five SNPs (rs2162540, rs2981578, rs1078806, rs11200014, and rs10736303) were found to be associated with skeletal malocclusions (all P < 0.05). That is, rs2162540 was significantly associated with skeletal class II malocclusion, while others were associated with skeletal class III malocclusion. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that the common genotypes of rs2981578 and rs10736303 contained the binding sites of RUNX2 and SMAD4. Compared with the common genotypes, the minor genotypes at these 2 SNPs decreased the binding affinity and enhancer effect of RUNX2 and SMAD4, as well the levels of FGFR2 expression. In addition, FGFR2 expression contributed positively to osteogenic differentiation in vitro. Thus, we identified FGFR2 as a skeletal malocclusion risk gene, and FGFR2 polymorphisms regulated its transcriptional expression and then osteogenic differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q. Jiang
- Orthodontic Department, Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - L. Mei
- Department of Oral Sciences, Sir John Walsh Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Y. Zou
- Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Q. Ding
- Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - R.D. Cannon
- Department of Oral Sciences, Sir John Walsh Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - H. Chen
- Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - H. Li
- Orthodontic Department, Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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14
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Motch Perrine SM, Wu M, Stephens NB, Kriti D, van Bakel H, Jabs EW, Richtsmeier JT. Mandibular dysmorphology due to abnormal embryonic osteogenesis in FGFR2-related craniosynostosis mice. Dis Model Mech 2019; 12:dmm.038513. [PMID: 31064775 PMCID: PMC6550049 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.038513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One diagnostic feature of craniosynostosis syndromes is mandibular dysgenesis. Using three mouse models of Apert, Crouzon and Pfeiffer craniosynostosis syndromes, we investigated how embryonic development of the mandible is affected by fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (Fgfr2) mutations. Quantitative analysis of skeletal form at birth revealed differences in mandibular morphology between mice carrying Fgfr2 mutations and their littermates that do not carry the mutations. Murine embryos with the mutations associated with Apert syndrome in humans (Fgfr2+/S252W and Fgfr2+/P253R) showed an increase in the size of the osteogenic anlagen and Meckel's cartilage (MC). Changes in the microarchitecture and mineralization of the developing mandible were visualized using histological staining. The mechanism for mandibular dysgenesis in the Apert Fgfr2+/S252W mouse resulting in the most severe phenotypic effects was further analyzed in detail and found to occur to a lesser degree in the other craniosynostosis mouse models. Laser capture microdissection and RNA-seq analysis revealed transcriptomic changes in mandibular bone at embryonic day 16.5 (E16.5), highlighting increased expression of genes related to osteoclast differentiation and dysregulated genes active in bone mineralization. Increased osteoclastic activity was corroborated by TRAP assay and in situ hybridization of Csf1r and Itgb3. Upregulated expression of Enpp1 and Ank was validated in the mandible of Fgfr2+/S252W embryos, and found to result in elevated inorganic pyrophosphate concentration. Increased proliferation of osteoblasts in the mandible and chondrocytes forming MC was identified in Fgfr2+/S252W embryos at E12.5. These findings provide evidence that FGFR2 gain-of-function mutations differentially affect cartilage formation and intramembranous ossification of dermal bone, contributing to mandibular dysmorphogenesis in craniosynostosis syndromes. This article has an associated First Person interview with the joint first authors of the paper. Summary: FGFR2 gain-of-function mutations differentially affect cartilage formation and intramembranous ossification of dermal bone, resulting in abnormal embryonic osteogenesis of the mandible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Meng Wu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Divya Kriti
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Ethylin Wang Jabs
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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15
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Double deletion of Panx1 and Panx3 affects skin and bone but not hearing. J Mol Med (Berl) 2019; 97:723-736. [PMID: 30918989 DOI: 10.1007/s00109-019-01779-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Pannexins (Panxs), large-pore channel forming glycoproteins, are expressed in a wide variety of tissues including the skin, bone, and cochlea. To date, the use of single knock-out mouse models of both Panx1 and Panx3 have demonstrated their roles in skin development, bone formation, and auditory phenotypes. Due to sequence homology between Panx1 and Panx3, when one Panx is ablated from germline, the other may be upregulated in a compensatory mechanism to maintain tissue homeostasis and function. To evaluate the roles of Panx1 and Panx3 in the skin, bone, and cochlea, we created the first Panx1/Panx3 double knock-out mouse model (dKO). These mice had smaller litters and reduced body weight compared to wildtype controls. The dKO dorsal skin had decreased epidermal and dermal area as well as decreased hypodermal area in neonatal but not in older mice. In addition, mouse skull shape and size were altered, and long bone length was decreased in neonatal dKO mice. Finally, auditory tests revealed that dKO mice did not exhibit hearing loss and were even slightly protected against noise-induced hearing damage at mid-frequency regions. Taken together, our findings suggest that Panx1 and Panx3 are important at early stages of development in the skin and bone but may be redundant in the auditory system. KEY MESSAGES: Panx double KO mice had smaller litters and reduced body weight. dKO skin had decreased epidermal and dermal area in neonatal mice. Skull shape and size changed plus long bone length decreased in neonatal dKO mice. dKO had no hearing loss and were slightly protected against noise-induced damage.
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16
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Abstract
Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and their receptors (FGFRs) are expressed throughout all stages of skeletal development. In the limb bud and in cranial mesenchyme, FGF signaling is important for formation of mesenchymal condensations that give rise to bone. Once skeletal elements are initiated and patterned, FGFs regulate both endochondral and intramembranous ossification programs. In this chapter, we review functions of the FGF signaling pathway during these critical stages of skeletogenesis, and explore skeletal malformations in humans that are caused by mutations in FGF signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States.
| | - Pierre J Marie
- UMR-1132 Inserm (Institut national de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale) and University Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Hôpital Lariboisière, Paris, France
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17
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Holmes G, O'Rourke C, Motch Perrine SM, Lu N, van Bakel H, Richtsmeier JT, Jabs EW. Midface and upper airway dysgenesis in FGFR2-related craniosynostosis involves multiple tissue-specific and cell cycle effects. Development 2018; 145:dev.166488. [PMID: 30228104 DOI: 10.1242/dev.166488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Midface dysgenesis is a feature of more than 200 genetic conditions in which upper airway anomalies frequently cause respiratory distress, but its etiology is poorly understood. Mouse models of Apert and Crouzon craniosynostosis syndromes exhibit midface dysgenesis similar to the human conditions. They carry activating mutations of Fgfr2, which is expressed in multiple craniofacial tissues during development. Magnetic resonance microscopy of three mouse models of Apert and Crouzon syndromes revealed decreased nasal passage volume in all models at birth. Histological analysis suggested overgrowth of the nasal cartilage in the two Apert syndrome mouse models. We used tissue-specific gene expression and transcriptome analysis to further dissect the structural, cellular and molecular alterations underlying midface and upper airway dysgenesis in Apert Fgfr2+/S252W mutants. Cartilage thickened progressively during embryogenesis because of increased chondrocyte proliferation in the presence of Fgf2 Oral epithelium expression of mutant Fgfr2, which resulted in a distinctive nasal septal fusion defect, and premature facial suture fusion contributed to the overall dysmorphology. Midface dysgenesis in Fgfr2-related craniosynostosis is a complex phenotype arising from the combined effects of aberrant signaling in multiple craniofacial tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Holmes
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Courtney O'Rourke
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Susan M Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Na Lu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Ethylin Wang Jabs
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
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18
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Motch Perrine SM, Stecko T, Neuberger T, Jabs EW, Ryan TM, Richtsmeier JT. Integration of Brain and Skull in Prenatal Mouse Models of Apert and Crouzon Syndromes. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:369. [PMID: 28790902 PMCID: PMC5525342 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The brain and skull represent a complex arrangement of integrated anatomical structures composed of various cell and tissue types that maintain structural and functional association throughout development. Morphological integration, a concept developed in vertebrate morphology and evolutionary biology, describes the coordinated variation of functionally and developmentally related traits of organisms. Syndromic craniosynostosis is characterized by distinctive changes in skull morphology and perceptible, though less well studied, changes in brain structure and morphology. Using mouse models for craniosynostosis conditions, our group has precisely defined how unique craniosynostosis causing mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptors affect brain and skull morphology and dysgenesis involving coordinated tissue-specific effects of these mutations. Here we examine integration of brain and skull in two mouse models for craniosynostosis: one carrying the FGFR2c C342Y mutation associated with Pfeiffer and Crouzon syndromes and a mouse model carrying the FGFR2 S252W mutation, one of two mutations responsible for two-thirds of Apert syndrome cases. Using linear distances estimated from three-dimensional coordinates of landmarks acquired from dual modality imaging of skull (high resolution micro-computed tomography and magnetic resonance microscopy) of mice at embryonic day 17.5, we confirm variation in brain and skull morphology in Fgfr2cC342Y/+ mice, Fgfr2+/S252W mice, and their unaffected littermates. Mutation-specific variation in neural and cranial tissue notwithstanding, patterns of integration of brain and skull differed only subtly between mice carrying either the FGFR2c C342Y or the FGFR2 S252W mutation and their unaffected littermates. However, statistically significant and substantial differences in morphological integration of brain and skull were revealed between the two mutant mouse models, each maintained on a different strain. Relative to the effects of disease-associated mutations, our results reveal a stronger influence of the background genome on patterns of brain-skull integration and suggest robust genetic, developmental, and evolutionary relationships between neural and skeletal tissues of the head.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Motch Perrine
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Tim Stecko
- Center for Quantitative Imaging, Penn State Institutes for Energy and the Environment, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Thomas Neuberger
- High Field MRI Facility, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States.,Department of Bioengineering, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Ethylin W Jabs
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount SinaiNew York, NY, United States
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States.,Center for Quantitative Imaging, Penn State Institutes for Energy and the Environment, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State UniversityUniversity Park, PA, United States
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19
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Heuzé Y, Kawasaki K, Schwarz T, Schoenebeck JJ, Richtsmeier JT. Developmental and Evolutionary Significance of the Zygomatic Bone. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 299:1616-1630. [PMID: 27870340 PMCID: PMC5111587 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The zygomatic bone is derived evolutionarily from the orbital series. In most modern mammals the zygomatic bone forms a large part of the face and usually serves as a bridge that connects the facial skeleton to the neurocranium. Our aim is to provide information on the contribution of the zygomatic bone to variation in midfacial protrusion using three samples; humans, domesticated dogs, and monkeys. In each case, variation in midface protrusion is a heritable trait produced by one of three classes of transmission: localized dysmorphology associated with single gene dysfunction, selective breeding, or long‐term evolution from a common ancestor. We hypothesize that the shape of the zygomatic bone reflects its role in stabilizing the connection between facial skeleton and neurocranium and consequently, changes in facial protrusion are more strongly reflected by the maxilla and premaxilla. Our geometric morphometric analyses support our hypothesis suggesting that the shape of the zygomatic bone has less to do with facial protrusion. By morphometrically dissecting the zygomatic bone we have determined a degree of modularity among parts of the midfacial skeleton suggesting that these components have the ability to vary independently and thus can evolve differentially. From these purely morphometric data, we propose that the neural crest cells that are fated to contribute to the zygomatic bone experience developmental cues that distinguish them from the maxilla and premaxilla. The spatiotemporal and molecular identity of the cues that impart zygoma progenitors with their identity remains an open question that will require alternative data sets. Anat Rec, 299:1616–1630, 2016. © 2016 The Authors The Anatomical Record Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yann Heuzé
- UMR5199 PACEA, Bordeaux Archaeological Sciences Cluster of Excellence, Université De Bordeaux
| | - Kazuhiko Kawasaki
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Tobias Schwarz
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian, UK
| | - Jeffrey J Schoenebeck
- Division of Genetics and Genomics, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, UK
| | - Joan T Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
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20
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Goldie SJ, Arhatari BD, Anderson P, Auden A, Partridge DD, Jane SM, Dworkin S. Mice lacking the conserved transcription factor Grainyhead-like 3 (Grhl3) display increased apposition of the frontal and parietal bones during embryonic development. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 16:37. [PMID: 27756203 PMCID: PMC5070091 DOI: 10.1186/s12861-016-0136-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased apposition of the frontal and parietal bones of the skull during embryogenesis may be a risk factor for the subsequent development of premature skull fusion, or craniosynostosis. Human craniosynostosis is a prevalent, and often serious embryological and neonatal pathology. Other than known mutations in a small number of contributing genes, the aetiology of craniosynostosis is largely unknown. Therefore, the identification of novel genes which contribute to normal skull patterning, morphology and premature suture apposition is imperative, in order to fully understand the genetic regulation of cranial development. RESULTS Using advanced imaging techniques and quantitative measurement, we show that genetic deletion of the highly-conserved transcription factor Grainyhead-like 3 (Grhl3) in mice (Grhl3 -/- ) leads to decreased skull size, aberrant skull morphology and premature apposition of the coronal sutures during embryogenesis. Furthermore, Grhl3 -/- mice also present with premature collagen deposition and osteoblast alignment at the sutures, and the physical interaction between the developing skull, and outermost covering of the brain (the dura mater), as well as the overlying dermis and subcutaneous tissue, appears compromised in embryos lacking Grhl3. Although Grhl3 -/- mice die at birth, we investigated skull morphology and size in adult animals lacking one Grhl3 allele (heterozygous; Grhl3 +/- ), which are viable and fertile. We found that these adult mice also present with a smaller cranial cavity, suggestive of post-natal haploinsufficiency in the context of cranial development. CONCLUSIONS Our findings show that our Grhl3 mice present with increased apposition of the frontal and parietal bones, suggesting that Grhl3 may be involved in the developmental pathogenesis of craniosynostosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Goldie
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Benedicta D Arhatari
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Advanced Molecular Imaging, Department of Chemistry and Physics, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia
| | - Peter Anderson
- Australian Craniofacial Unit, Women and Children's Hospital, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.,Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.,Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, People's Republic of China
| | - Alana Auden
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Darren D Partridge
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Stephen M Jane
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia
| | - Sebastian Dworkin
- Department of Medicine, Monash University Central Clinical School, Prahran, VIC, 3004, Australia. .,Present address: Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, 3086, Australia.
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21
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Durham EL, Howie RN, Black L, Bennfors G, Parsons TE, Elsalanty M, Yu JC, Weinberg SM, Cray JJ. Effects of thyroxine exposure on the Twist 1 +/- phenotype: A test of gene-environment interaction modeling for craniosynostosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 106:803-813. [PMID: 27435288 DOI: 10.1002/bdra.23543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Craniosynostosis, the premature fusion of one or more of the cranial sutures, is estimated to occur in 1:1800 to 2500 births. Genetic murine models of craniosynostosis exist, but often imperfectly model human patients. Case, cohort, and surveillance studies have identified excess thyroid hormone as an agent that can either cause or exacerbate human cases of craniosynostosis. METHODS Here we investigate the influence of in utero and in vitro exogenous thyroid hormone exposure on a murine model of craniosynostosis, Twist 1 +/-. RESULTS By 15 days post-natal, there was evidence of coronal suture fusion in the Twist 1 +/- model, regardless of exposure. With the exception of craniofacial width, there were no significant effects of exposure; however, the Twist 1 +/- phenotype was significantly different from the wild-type control. Twist 1 +/- cranial suture cells did not respond to thyroxine treatment as measured by proliferation, osteogenic differentiation, and gene expression of osteogenic markers. However, treatment of these cells did result in modulation of thyroid associated gene expression. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest the phenotypic effects of the genetic mutation largely outweighed the effects of thyroxine exposure in the Twist 1 +/- model. These results highlight difficultly in experimentally modeling gene-environment interactions for craniosynostotic phenotypes. Birth Defects Research (Part A) 106:803-813, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily L Durham
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - R Nicole Howie
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Laurel Black
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Grace Bennfors
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
| | - Trish E Parsons
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Mohammed Elsalanty
- Departments of Oral Biology, Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Orthopaedic Surgery and Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia.,Institute for Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia
| | - Jack C Yu
- Institute for Regenerative and Reparative Medicine, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia.,Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic Surgery, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia
| | - Seth M Weinberg
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - James J Cray
- Department of Oral Health Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina.
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22
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Flaherty K, Singh N, Richtsmeier JT. Understanding craniosynostosis as a growth disorder. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 5:429-59. [PMID: 27002187 PMCID: PMC4911263 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 12/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis is a condition of complex etiology that always involves the premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures and includes various anomalies of the soft and hard tissues of the head. Steady progress in the field has resulted in identifying gene mutations that recurrently cause craniosynostosis. There are now scores of mutations on many genes causally related to craniosynostosis syndromes, though the genetic basis for the majority of nonsyndromic cases is unknown. Identification of these genetic mutations has allowed significant progress in understanding the intrinsic properties of cranial sutures, including mechanisms responsible for normal suture patency and for pathogenesis of premature suture closure. An understanding of morphogenesis of cranial vault sutures is critical to understanding the pathophysiology of craniosynostosis conditions, but the field is now poised to recognize the repeated changes in additional skeletal and soft tissues of the head that typically accompany premature suture closure. We review the research that has brought an understanding of premature suture closure within our reach. We then enumerate the less well-studied, but equally challenging, nonsutural phenotypes of craniosynostosis conditions that are well characterized in available mouse models. We consider craniosynostosis as a complex growth disorder of multiple tissues of the developing head, whose growth is also targeted by identified mutations in ways that are poorly understood. Knowledge gained from studies of humans and mouse models for these conditions underscores the diverse, associated developmental anomalies of the head that contribute to the complex phenotypes of craniosynostosis conditions presenting novel challenges for future research. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:429-459. doi: 10.1002/wdev.227 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Flaherty
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
| | - Nandini Singh
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
| | - Joan T. Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, PA 16802
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23
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Hallgrimsson B, Percival CJ, Green R, Young NM, Mio W, Marcucio R. Morphometrics, 3D Imaging, and Craniofacial Development. Curr Top Dev Biol 2015; 115:561-97. [PMID: 26589938 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown how volumetric imaging and morphometrics can add significantly to our understanding of morphogenesis, the developmental basis for variation, and the etiology of structural birth defects. On the other hand, the complex questions and diverse imaging data in developmental biology present morphometrics with more complex challenges than applications in virtually any other field. Meeting these challenges is necessary in order to understand the mechanistic basis for variation in complex morphologies. This chapter reviews the methods and theory that enable the application of modern landmark-based morphometrics to developmental biology and craniofacial development, in particular. We discuss the theoretical foundations of morphometrics as applied to development and review the basic approaches to the quantification of morphology. Focusing on geometric morphometrics, we discuss the principal statistical methods for quantifying and comparing morphological variation and covariation structure within and among groups. Finally, we discuss the future directions for morphometrics in developmental biology that will be required for approaches that enable quantitative integration across the genotype-phenotype map.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Hallgrimsson
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, and McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Christopher J Percival
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, and McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rebecca Green
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, and McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Nathan M Young
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, San Francisco General Hospital, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Washington Mio
- Department of Mathematics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Ralph Marcucio
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, San Francisco General Hospital, Orthopaedic Trauma Institute, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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24
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Abstract
Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling pathways are essential regulators of vertebrate skeletal development. FGF signaling regulates development of the limb bud and formation of the mesenchymal condensation and has key roles in regulating chondrogenesis, osteogenesis, and bone and mineral homeostasis. This review updates our review on FGFs in skeletal development published in Genes & Development in 2002, examines progress made on understanding the functions of the FGF signaling pathway during critical stages of skeletogenesis, and explores the mechanisms by which mutations in FGF signaling molecules cause skeletal malformations in humans. Links between FGF signaling pathways and other interacting pathways that are critical for skeletal development and could be exploited to treat genetic diseases and repair bone are also explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Ornitz
- Department of Developmental Biology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
| | - Pierre J Marie
- UMR-1132, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Hopital Lariboisiere, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France; Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
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25
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Lee C, Richtsmeier JT, Kraft RH. A computational analysis of bone formation in the cranial vault in the mouse. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2015; 3:24. [PMID: 25853124 PMCID: PMC4365500 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2015.00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bones of the cranial vault are formed by the differentiation of mesenchymal cells into osteoblasts on a surface that surrounds the brain, eventually forming mineralized bone. Signaling pathways causative for cell differentiation include the actions of extracellular proteins driven by information from genes. We assume that the interaction of cells and extracellular molecules, which are associated with cell differentiation, can be modeled using Turing's reaction-diffusion model, a mathematical model for pattern formation controlled by two interacting molecules (activator and inhibitor). In this study, we hypothesize that regions of high concentration of an activator develop into primary centers of ossification, the earliest sites of cranial vault bone. In addition to the Turing model, we use another diffusion equation to model a morphogen (potentially the same as the morphogen associated with formation of ossification centers) associated with bone growth. These mathematical models were solved using the finite volume method. The computational domain and model parameters are determined using a large collection of experimental data showing skull bone formation in mouse at different embryonic days in mice carrying disease causing mutations and their unaffected littermates. The results show that the relative locations of the five ossification centers that form in our model occur at the same position as those identified in experimental data. As bone grows from these ossification centers, sutures form between the bones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanyoung Lee
- The Penn State Computational Biomechanics Group, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Joan T. Richtsmeier
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Reuben H. Kraft
- The Penn State Computational Biomechanics Group, Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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26
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Integration of comprehensive 3D microCT and signaling analysis reveals differential regulatory mechanisms of craniofacial bone development. Dev Biol 2015; 400:180-90. [PMID: 25722190 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2015.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Growth factor signaling regulates tissue-tissue interactions to control organogenesis and tissue homeostasis. Specifically, transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling plays a crucial role in the development of cranial neural crest (CNC) cell-derived bone, and loss of Tgfbr2 in CNC cells results in craniofacial skeletal malformations. Our recent studies indicate that non-canonical TGFβ signaling is activated whereas canonical TGFβ signaling is compromised in the absence of Tgfbr2 (in Tgfbr2(fl/fl);Wnt1-Cre mice). A haploinsufficiency of Tgfbr1 (aka Alk5) (Tgfbr2(fl/fl);Wnt1-Cre;Alk5(fl/+)) largely rescues craniofacial deformities in Tgfbr2 mutant mice by reducing ectopic non-canonical TGFβ signaling. However, the relative involvement of canonical and non-canonical TGFβ signaling in regulating specific craniofacial bone formation remains unclear. We compared the size and volume of CNC-derived craniofacial bones (frontal bone, premaxilla, maxilla, palatine bone, and mandible) from E18.5 control, Tgfbr2(fl/fl);Wnt1-Cre, and Tgfbr2(fl/fl);Wnt1-Cre;Alk5(fl/+)mice. By analyzing three dimensional (3D) micro-computed tomography (microCT) images, we found that different craniofacial bones were restored to different degrees in Tgfbr2(fl/fl);Wnt1-Cre;Alk5(fl/+) mice. Our study provides comprehensive information on anatomical landmarks and the size and volume of each craniofacial bone, as well as insights into the extent that canonical and non-canonical TGFβ signaling cascades contribute to the formation of each CNC-derived bone. Our data will serve as an important resource for developmental biologists who are interested in craniofacial morphogenesis.
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27
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Closing the Gap: Genetic and Genomic Continuum from Syndromic to Nonsyndromic Craniosynostoses. CURRENT GENETIC MEDICINE REPORTS 2014; 2:135-145. [PMID: 26146596 DOI: 10.1007/s40142-014-0042-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Craniosynostosis, a condition that includes the premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures, is a relatively common birth defect in humans and the second most common craniofacial anomaly after orofacial clefts. There is a significant clinical variation among different sutural synostoses as well as significant variation within any given single-suture synostosis. Craniosynostosis can be isolated (i.e., nonsyndromic) or occurs as part of a genetic syndrome (e.g., Crouzon, Pfeiffer, Apert, Muenke, and Saethre-Chotzen syndromes). Approximately 85 % of all cases of craniosynostosis are nonsyndromic. Several recent genomic discoveries are elucidating the genetic basis for nonsyndromic cases and implicate the newly identified genes in signaling pathways previously found in syndromic craniosynostosis. Published epidemiologic and phenotypic studies clearly demonstrate that nonsyndromic craniosynostosis is a complex and heterogeneous condition supporting a strong genetic component accompanied by environmental factors that contribute to the pathogenetic network of this birth defect. Large population, rather than single-clinic or hospital-based studies is required with phenotypically homogeneous subsets of patients to further understand the complex genetic, maternal, environmental, and stochastic factors contributing to nonsyndromic craniosynostosis. Learning about these variables is a key in formulating the basis of multidisciplinary and lifelong care for patients with these conditions.
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