Hippo pathway genes developed varied exon numbers and coevolved functional domains in metazoans for species specific growth control

Cell polarity signalling at the birth of multicellularity: What can we learn from the first animals

The innovation of multicellularity has driven the unparalleled evolution of animals (Metazoa). But how is a multicellular organism formed and how is its architecture maintained faithfully? The defining properties and rules required for the establishment of the architecture of multicellular organisms include the development of adhesive cell interactions, orientation of division axis, and the ability to reposition daughter cells over long distances. Central to all these properties is the ability to generate asymmetry (polarity), coordinated by a highly conserved set of proteins known as cell polarity regulators. The cell polarity complexes, Scribble, Par and Crumbs, are considered to be a metazoan innovation with apicobasal polarity and adherens junctions both believed to be present in all animals. A better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms regulating cell polarity and tissue architecture should provide key insights into the development and regeneration of all animals including humans. Here we review what is currently known about cell polarity and its control in the most basal metazoans, and how these first examples of multicellular life can inform us about the core mechanisms of tissue organisation and repair, and ultimately diseases of tissue organisation, such as cancer.

MOB: Pivotal Conserved Proteins in Cytokinesis, Cell Architecture and Tissue Homeostasis

The MOB family proteins are constituted by highly conserved eukaryote kinase signal adaptors that are often essential both for cell and organism survival. Historically, MOB family proteins have been described as kinase activators participating in Hippo and Mitotic Exit Network/ Septation Initiation Network (MEN/SIN) signaling pathways that have central roles in regulating cytokinesis, cell polarity, cell proliferation and cell fate to control organ growth and regeneration. In metazoans, MOB proteins act as central signal adaptors of the core kinase module MST1/2, LATS1/2, and NDR1/2 kinases that phosphorylate the YAP/TAZ transcriptional co-activators, effectors of the Hippo signaling pathway. More recently, MOBs have been shown to also have non-kinase partners and to be involved in cilia biology, indicating that its activity and regulation is more diverse than expected. In this review, we explore the possible ancestral role of MEN/SIN pathways on the built-in nature of a more complex and functionally expanded Hippo pathway, by focusing on the most conserved components of these pathways, the MOB proteins. We discuss the current knowledge of MOBs-regulated signaling, with emphasis on its evolutionary history and role in morphogenesis, cytokinesis, and cell polarity from unicellular to multicellular organisms.

Alternative Splicing in the Hippo Pathway-Implications for Disease and Potential Therapeutic Targets

Alternative splicing is a well-studied gene regulatory mechanism that produces biological diversity by allowing the production of multiple protein isoforms from a single gene. An involvement of alternative splicing in the key biological signalling Hippo pathway is emerging and offers new therapeutic avenues. This review discusses examples of alternative splicing in the Hippo pathway, how deregulation of these processes may contribute to disease and whether these processes offer new potential therapeutic targets.

Comparative study of Hippo pathway genes in cellular conveyor belts of a ctenophore and a cnidarian

Background

The Hippo pathway regulates growth rate and organ size in fly and mouse, notably through control of cell proliferation. Molecular interactions at the heart of this pathway are known to have originated in the unicellular ancestry of metazoans. They notably involve a cascade of phosphorylations triggered by the kinase Hippo, with subsequent nuclear to cytoplasmic shift of Yorkie localisation, preventing its binding to the transcription factor Scalloped, thereby silencing proliferation genes. There are few comparative expression data of Hippo pathway genes in non-model animal species and notably none in non-bilaterian phyla.

Results

All core Hippo pathway genes could be retrieved from the ctenophore Pleurobrachia pileus and the hydrozoan cnidarian Clytia hemisphaerica, with the important exception of Yorkie in ctenophore. Expression study of the Hippo, Salvador and Scalloped genes in tentacle “cellular conveyor belts” of these two organisms revealed striking differences. In P. pileus, their transcripts were detected in areas where undifferentiated progenitors intensely proliferate and where expression of cyclins B and D was also seen. In C. hemisphaerica, these three genes and Yorkie are expressed not only in the proliferating but also in the differentiation zone of the tentacle bulb and in mature tentacle cells. However, using an antibody designed against the C. hemiphaerica Yorkie protein, we show in two distinct cell lineages of the medusa that Yorkie localisation is predominantly nuclear in areas of active cell proliferation and mainly cytoplasmic elsewhere.

Conclusions

This is the first evidence of nucleocytoplasmic Yorkie shift in association with the arrest of cell proliferation in a cnidarian, strongly evoking the cell division-promoting role of this protein and its inhibition by the activated Hippo pathway in bilaterian models. Our results furthermore highlight important differences in terms of deployment and regulation of Hippo pathway genes between cnidarians and ctenophores.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13227-016-0041-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Genome-wide analysis of the WW domain-containing protein genes in silkworm and their expansion in eukaryotes

WW domains are protein modules that mediate protein-protein interactions through recognition of proline-rich peptide motifs and phosphorylated serine/threonine-proline sites. WW domains are found in many different structural and signaling proteins that are involved in a variety of cellular processes. WW domain-containing proteins (WWCPs) and complexes have been implicated in major human diseases including cancer as well as in major signaling cascades such as the Hippo tumor suppressor pathway, making them targets for new diagnostics and therapeutics. There are a number of reports about the WWCPs in different species, but systematic analysis of the WWCP genes and its ligands is still lacking in silkworm and the other organisms. In this study, WWCP genes and PY motif-containing proteins have been identified and analyzed in 56 species including silkworm. Whole-genome screening of B. mori identified thirty-three proteins with thirty-nine WW domains located on thirteen chromosomes. In the 39 silkworm WW domains, 15 domains belong to the Group I WW domain; 14 domains were in Group II/III, 9 domains derived from 8 silkworm WWCPs could not be classified into any group, and Group IV contains only one WW domain. Based on gene annotation, silkworm WWCP genes have functions in multi-biology processes. A detailed list of WWCPs from the other 55 species was sorted in this work. In 14,623 silkworm predicted proteins, nearly 18 % contained PY motif, nearly 30 % contained various motifs totally that could be recognized by WW domains. Gene Ontology and KEGG analysis revealed that dozens of WW domain-binding proteins are involved in Wnt, Hedgehog, Notch, mTOR, EGF and Jak-STAT signaling pathway. Tissue expression patterns of WWCP genes and potential WWCP-binding protein genes on the third day of the fifth instar (L5D3) were examined by microarray analysis. Tissue expression profile analysis found that several WWCP genes and poly-proline or PY motif-containing protein genes took tissue- or gender-dependent expression manner in silkworms. We further analyzed WWCPs and PY motif-containing proteins in representative organisms of invertebrates and vertebrates. The results showed that there are no less than 16 and up to 29 WWCPs in insects, the average is 22. The number of WW domains in insects is no less than 19, and up to 47, the average is 36. In vertebrates, excluding the Hydrobiontes, the number of WWCPs is no less than 34 and up to 49, the average is 43. The number of WW domains in vertebrates is no less than 56 and up to 85, the average is 73. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that most homologous genes of the WWCP subfamily in vertebrates were duplicated during evolution and functions diverged. Nearly 1,000 PY motif-containing protein genes were found in insect genomes and nearly 2,000 genes in vertebrates. The different distributions of WWCP genes and PY motif-containing protein genes in different species revealed a possible positive correlation with organism complexity. In conclusion, this comprehensive bio-information analysis of WWCPs and its binding ligands would provide rich fundamental knowledge and useful information for further exploration of the function of the WW domain-containing proteins not only in silkworm, but also in other species.