Subtractive and differential hybridization molecular analyses of Ceratitis capitata XX/XY versus XX embryos to search for male-specific early transcribed genes

A history of the genetic and molecular identification of genes and their functions controlling insect sex determination

The genetics of the sex determination regulatory cascade in Drosophila melanogaster has a fascinating history, interlinked with the foundation of the Genetics discipline itself. The discovery that alternative splicing rather than differential transcription is the molecular mechanism underlying the upstream control of sex differences in the Drosophila model system was surprising. This notion is now fully integrated into the scientific canon, appearing in many genetics textbooks and online education resources. In the last three decades, it was a key reference point for starting evolutionary studies in other insect species by using homology-based approaches. This review will introduce a very brief history of Drosophila genetics. It will describe the genetic and molecular approaches applied for the identifying and cloning key genes involved in sex determination in Drosophila and in many other insect species. These comparative analyses led to supporting the idea that sex-determining pathways have evolved mainly by recruiting different upstream signals/genes while maintaining widely conserved intermediate and downstream regulatory genes. The review also provides examples of the link between technological advances and research achievements, to stimulate reflections on how science is produced. It aims to hopefully strengthen the related historical and conceptual knowledge of general readers of other disciplines and of younger geneticists, often focused on the latest technical-molecular approaches.

Sexual Dimorphism in Growth Rate and Gene Expression Throughout Immature Development in Wild Type Chrysomya rufifacies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Macquart

Reliability of forensic entomology analyses to produce relevant information to a given case requires an understanding of the underlying arthropod population(s) of interest and the factors contributing to variability. Common traits for analyses are affected by a variety of genetic and environmental factors. One trait of interest in forensic investigations has been species-specific temperature-dependent growth rates. Recent work indicates sexual dimorphism may be important in the analysis of such traits and related genetic markers of age. However, studying sexual dimorphic patterns of gene expression throughout immature development in wild-type insects can be difficult due to a lack of genetic tools, and the limits of most sex-determination mechanisms. Chrysomya rufifacies, however, is a particularly tractable system to address these issues as it has a monogenic sex determination system, meaning females have only a single-sex of offspring throughout their life. Using modified breeding procedures (to ensure single-female egg clutches) and transcriptomics, we investigated sexual dimorphism in development rate and gene expression. Females develop slower than males (9 h difference from egg to eclosion respectively) even at 30°C, with an average egg-to-eclosion time of 225 h for males and 234 h for females. Given that many key genes rely on sex-specific splicing for the development and maintenance of sexually dimorphic traits, we used a transcriptomic approach to identify different expression of gene splice variants. We find that 98.4% of assembled nodes exhibited sex-specific, stage-specific, to sex-by-stage specific patterns of expression. However, the greatest signal in the expression data is differentiation by developmental stage, indicating that sexual dimorphism in gene expression during development may not be investigatively important and that markers of age may be relatively independent of sex. Subtle differences in these gene expression patterns can be detected as early as 4 h post-oviposition, and 12 of these nodes demonstrate homology with key Drosophila sex determination genes, providing clues regarding the distinct sex determination mechanism of C. rufifacies. Finally, we validated the transcriptome analyses through qPCR and have identified five genes that are developmentally informative within and between sexes.

Identification of Y-chromosome scaffolds of the Queensland fruit fly reveals a duplicated gyf gene paralogue common to many Bactrocera pest species

Bactrocera tryoni (Queensland fruit fly) are polyphagous horticultural pests of eastern Australia. Heterogametic males contain a sex-determining Y-chromosome thought to be gene poor and repetitive. Here, we report 39 Y-chromosome scaffolds (~700 kb) from B. tryoni identified using genotype-by-sequencing data and whole-genome resequencing. Male diagnostic PCR assays validated eight Y-scaffolds, and one (Btry4096) contained a novel gene with five exons that encode a predicted 575 amino acid protein. The Y-gene, referred to as typo-gyf, is a truncated Y-chromosome paralogue of X-chromosome gene gyf (1773 aa). The Y-chromosome contained ~41 copies of typo-gyf, and expression occurred in male flies and embryos. Analysis of 13 tephritid transcriptomes confirmed typo-gyf expression in six additional Bactrocera species, including Bactrocera latifrons, Bactrocera dorsalis and Bactrocera zonata. Molecular dating estimated typo-gyf evolved within the past 8.02 million years (95% highest posterior density 10.56-5.52 million years), after the split with Bactrocera oleae. Phylogenetic analysis also highlighted complex evolutionary histories among several Bactrocera species, as discordant nuclear (116 genes) and mitochondrial (13 genes) topologies were observed. B. tryoni Y-sequences may provide useful sites for future transgene insertions, and typo-gyf could act as a Y-chromosome diagnostic marker for many Bactrocera species, although its function is unknown.

Effects of lipopolysaccharide and juvenile hormone III treatments on cell growth and gene expression in the Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) CCE/CC128 cell line

The Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata is one of the most important insect pest species in the world. It has a high colonization capacity and population variety, giving it considerable genetic diversity. Strategies for its control have included the sterile insect technique and insect growth regulators. Many studies have analyzed the medfly transcriptome, and along with the medfly genome sequence, the sequences of multiple genes related to sex determination, mating, development, pheromone detection, immunity, or stress have been identified. In this study, the medfly CCE/CC128 cell line was used to assess cell growth variation and changes in the expression of genes covering different functions, after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and juvenile hormone III (JHIII) treatments. No significant effects on cell growth and gene expression were observed in the cells treated with LPS. In the cells treated with JHIII, the results showed significant effects on cell growth, and an overexpression was found of the Shade gene, one of the Halloween gene members of the cytochrome p450 family, which is involved in development and the synthesis of 20-hydroxyecdysone. This study shows preliminary results on the insect cell line in combination with whole-genome sequencing, which can facilitate studies regarding growth, toxicity, immunity, and transcriptome regulations as a response to different compounds and environmental alterations.

The whole genome sequence of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), reveals insights into the biology and adaptive evolution of a highly invasive pest species

Background

The Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly), Ceratitis capitata, is a major destructive insect pest due to its broad host range, which includes hundreds of fruits and vegetables. It exhibits a unique ability to invade and adapt to ecological niches throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world, though medfly infestations have been prevented and controlled by the sterile insect technique (SIT) as part of integrated pest management programs (IPMs). The genetic analysis and manipulation of medfly has been subject to intensive study in an effort to improve SIT efficacy and other aspects of IPM control.

Results

The 479 Mb medfly genome is sequenced from adult flies from lines inbred for 20 generations. A high-quality assembly is achieved having a contig N50 of 45.7 kb and scaffold N50 of 4.06 Mb. In-depth curation of more than 1800 messenger RNAs shows specific gene expansions that can be related to invasiveness and host adaptation, including gene families for chemoreception, toxin and insecticide metabolism, cuticle proteins, opsins, and aquaporins. We identify genes relevant to IPM control, including those required to improve SIT.

Conclusions

The medfly genome sequence provides critical insights into the biology of one of the most serious and widespread agricultural pests. This knowledge should significantly advance the means of controlling the size and invasive potential of medfly populations. Its close relationship to Drosophila, and other insect species important to agriculture and human health, will further comparative functional and structural studies of insect genomes that should broaden our understanding of gene family evolution.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13059-016-1049-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.