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Dingwoke EJ, Adamude FA, Salihu A, Abubakar MS, Sallau AB. Toxicological analyses of the venoms of Nigerian vipers Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans. Trop Med Health 2024; 52:15. [PMID: 38282015 PMCID: PMC10823708 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-024-00581-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Among the medically important snakes in Nigeria, Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans have the most lethal venom. These venoms were classified according to the presence of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), snake venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2s), and snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs). Toxicological analyzes were performed to understand the significance of different protein families in venoms. METHODS Proteins were separated from venom using column chromatography. The skin and footpad of mice were used to determine hemorrhagic and edematogenic activities. Caprine blood plasma was used to test fibrinolytic activity in vitro. RESULTS The results showed that, compared to the crude venom, the SVMP fraction induced hemorrhagic effects with a diameter of 26.00 ± 1.00 mm in E. ocellatus and 21.33 ± 1.52 mm in B. arietans. Both SVSP and SVMP had anticoagulant effects; however, the SVSP fraction had a stronger effect, with a longer anticoagulation time of 30.00 ± 3.00 min in E. ocellatus and 26.00 ± 2.00 min in B. arietans. These main venom toxins, SVMPs, SVSPs, and PLA2, were found to have edema-forming effects that were optimal at 2 h after envenomation. PLA2s had the highest edema-inducing activity, with onset 30 min after envenomation. CONCLUSIONS Given the importance of SVMPs in altering the integrity of the membrane structure and impairing the blood coagulation system, an antivenom that can specifically neutralize its activity could inhibit the hemorrhage effects of the venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeka John Dingwoke
- Department of Tropical Diseases, UNESCO-International Center for Biotechnology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria.
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
| | - Fatima Adis Adamude
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Federal University, Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Aliyu Salihu
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Mujitaba Suleiman Abubakar
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Abdullahi Balarabe Sallau
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
- Venom, Antivenom and Natural Toxins Research Centre, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria.
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Sørensen CV, Almeida JR, Bohn MF, Rivera-de-Torre E, Schoffelen S, Voldborg BG, Ljungars A, Vaiyapuri S, Laustsen AH. Discovery of a human monoclonal antibody that cross-neutralizes venom phospholipase A 2s from three different snake genera. Toxicon 2023; 234:107307. [PMID: 37783315 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Despite the considerable global impact of snakebite envenoming, available treatments remain suboptimal. Here, we report the discovery of a broadly-neutralizing human monoclonal antibody, using a phage display-based cross-panning strategy, capable of reducing the cytotoxic effects of venom phospholipase A2s from three different snake genera from different continents. This highlights the potential of utilizing monoclonal antibodies to develop more effective, safer, and globally accessible polyvalent antivenoms that can be widely used to treat snakebite envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoffer V Sørensen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - José R Almeida
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, United Kingdom
| | - Markus-Frederik Bohn
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Sanne Schoffelen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Bjørn G Voldborg
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anne Ljungars
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Sakthivel Vaiyapuri
- School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6UB, United Kingdom.
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
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3
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Liao X, Guo S, Liao B, Shen X, He W, Meng Y, Liang C, Pei J, Liu J, Zhang Y, Xu J, Chen S. Chromatin architecture of two different strains of Artemisia annua reveals the alterations in interaction and gene expression. PLANTA 2023; 258:74. [PMID: 37668722 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-023-04223-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
MAIN CONCLUSION The hierarchical architecture of chromatins affects the gene expression level of glandular secreting trichomes and the artemisinin biosynthetic pathway-related genes, consequently bringing on huge differences in the content of artemisinin and its derivatives of A. annua. The plant of traditional Chinese medicine "Qinghao" is called Artemisia annua L. in Chinese Pharmacopoeia. High content and the total amount of artemisinin is the main goal of A. annua breeding, nevertheless, the change of chromatin organization during the artemisinin synthesis process has not been discovered yet. This study intended to find the roles of chromatin structure in the production of artemisinin through bioinformatics and experimental validation. Chromosome conformation capture analysis was used to scrutinize the interactions among chromosomes and categorize various scales of chromatin during artemisinin synthesis in A. annua. To confirm the effect of the changes in chromatin structure, Hi-C and RNA-sequencing were performed on two different strains to find the correlation between chromatin structure and gene expression levels on artemisinin synthesis progress and regulation. Our results revealed that the frequency of intra-chromosomal interactions was higher in the inter-chromosomal interactions between the root and leaves on a high artemisinin production strain (HAP) compared to a low artemisinin production strain (LAP). We found that compartmental transition was connected with interactions among different chromatins. Interestingly, glandular secreting trichomes (GSTs) and the artemisinin biosynthetic pathway (ABP) related genes were enriched in the areas which have the compartmental transition, reflecting the regulation of artemisinin synthesis. Topologically associated domain boundaries were associated with various distributions of genes and expression levels. Genes associated with ABP and GST in the adjacent loop were highly expressed, suggesting that epigenetic regulation plays an important role during artemisinin synthesis and glandular secreting trichomes production process. Chromatin structure could show an important status in the mechanisms of artemisinin synthesis process in A. annua.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejiao Liao
- Pharmacy College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250355, China
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Shuai Guo
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Baosheng Liao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Xiaofeng Shen
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Wenrui He
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Ying Meng
- Pharmacy College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250355, China
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Conglian Liang
- Pharmacy College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250355, China
| | - Jin Pei
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Jiushi Liu
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yongqing Zhang
- Pharmacy College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, 250355, China.
| | - Jiang Xu
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China.
| | - Shilin Chen
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China.
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
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Bava D, Kumar PHA, Gupta A, Mandal S, Bajpayee A, Gopalakrishnan M, Khan MA. Redefining the role of therapeutic plasma exchange in complications of Echis carinatus sochureki envenomation refractory to anti-snake venom: A case series. Asian J Transfus Sci 2023; 17:295-300. [PMID: 38274951 PMCID: PMC10807517 DOI: 10.4103/ajts.ajts_49_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus) belongs to the Viperidae family. Its venom is hemotoxic and contains several small peptides and proteins affecting the coagulation system. Commonly used anti-snake venom (ASV) products in India are reported to be ineffective or less effective in cases with bites by Echis carinatus sochureki which are commonly found in desert areas in Rajasthan. Although therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE) has been successful in patients with snakebite envenomation in the past, American Society for Apheresis guidelines 2019 included this indication under category III with grade 2C recommendation. AIM AND OBJECTIVES To report the safety and efficacy of therapeutic plasma exchange procedures in the setting of ASV refractory E. c. sochureki envenomation. MATERIALS AND METHODS Four patients admitted to our institute in 2021 September with an alleged history of snake bites and who underwent at least one cycle of therapeutic plasma exchange were assessed for clinical outcome, laboratory parameters, and blood product consumption. RESULTS Three adult patients and one pediatric patient are included in this case series, all of them males. Indication for TPE in one case was suspected diffuse alveolar hemorrhage (DAH), while in all the other cases was thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA). All received a variable number of sessions from 2 to 5 and 1.3-1.5 plasma volume was removed on an average per cycle. The endpoint of TPE was the resolution of DAH in one while a reduction in lactate dehydrogenase and an increase in platelet count was in TMA cases. Consumption of blood products was drastically reduced in all four patients after starting the procedure. All the adult patients fared well on follow-up while the child had developed acute cortical necrosis and was dialysis-dependent. It has been noted in the previous studies too that a subset of snakebite-induced TMA cases was getting converted to chronic kidney disease and becoming dialysis dependent in the long run. CONCLUSIONS In regions where ASV treatment failure is very common, therapeutic plasma exchange is a safe and effective complementary treatment modality along with supportive care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davood Bava
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - P H Akhilesh Kumar
- Department of General Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Anubhav Gupta
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Saptarshi Mandal
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Archana Bajpayee
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Maya Gopalakrishnan
- Department of General Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Md Atik Khan
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
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Dehghani R, Monzavi SM, Mehrpour O, Shirazi FM, Hassanian-Moghaddam H, Keyler DE, Wüster W, Westerström A, Warrell DA. Medically important snakes and snakebite envenoming in Iran. Toxicon 2023; 230:107149. [PMID: 37187227 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite is a common health condition in Iran with a diverse snake fauna, especially in tropical southern and mountainous western areas of the country with plethora of snake species. The list of medically important snakes, circumstances and effects of their bite, and necessary medical care require critical appraisal and should be updated regularly. This study aims to review and map the distributions of medically important snake species of Iran, re-evaluate their taxonomy, review their venomics, describe the clinical effects of envenoming, and discuss medical management and treatment, including the use of antivenom. Nearly 350 published articles and 26 textbooks with information on venomous and mildly venomous snake species and snakebites of Iran, were reviewed, many in Persian (Farsi) language, making them relatively inaccessible to an international readership. This has resulted in a revised updated list of Iran's medically important snake species, with taxonomic revisions of some, compilation of their morphological features, remapping of their geographical distributions, and description of species-specific clinical effects of envenoming. Moreover, the antivenom manufactured in Iran is discussed, together with treatment protocols that have been developed for the hospital management of envenomed patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruhollah Dehghani
- Department of Environmental Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Seyed Mostafa Monzavi
- Medical Toxicology Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Omid Mehrpour
- Medical Toxicology and Drug Abuse Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran; Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA.
| | - Farshad M Shirazi
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Hossein Hassanian-Moghaddam
- Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Clinical Toxicology, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Daniel E Keyler
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
| | | | - David A Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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6
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Michálek O, Walker AA, Šedo O, Zdráhal Z, King GF, Pekár S. Composition and toxicity of venom produced by araneophagous white-tailed spiders (Lamponidae: Lampona sp.). Sci Rep 2022; 12:21597. [PMID: 36517485 PMCID: PMC9751281 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-24694-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Prey-specialised spiders are adapted to capture specific prey items, including dangerous prey. The venoms of specialists are often prey-specific and less complex than those of generalists, but their venom composition has not been studied in detail. Here, we investigated the venom of the prey-specialised white-tailed spiders (Lamponidae: Lampona), which utilise specialised morphological and behavioural adaptations to capture spider prey. We analysed the venom composition using proteo-transcriptomics and taxon-specific toxicity using venom bioassays. Our analysis identified 208 putative toxin sequences, comprising 103 peptides < 10 kDa and 105 proteins > 10 kDa. Most peptides belonged to one of two families characterised by scaffolds containing eight or ten cysteine residues. Toxin-like proteins showed similarity to galectins, leucine-rich repeat proteins, trypsins and neprilysins. The venom of Lampona was shown to be more potent against the preferred spider prey than against alternative cricket prey. In contrast, the venom of a related generalist was similarly potent against both prey types. These data provide insights into the molecular adaptations of venoms produced by prey-specialised spiders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Michálek
- grid.10267.320000 0001 2194 0956Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Andrew A. Walker
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Ondrej Šedo
- grid.10267.320000 0001 2194 0956Research Group Proteomics, Mendel Centre for Plant Genomics and Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic ,grid.10267.320000 0001 2194 0956Faculty of Science, National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- grid.10267.320000 0001 2194 0956Research Group Proteomics, Mendel Centre for Plant Genomics and Proteomics, Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic ,grid.10267.320000 0001 2194 0956Faculty of Science, National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Glenn F. King
- grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia ,grid.1003.20000 0000 9320 7537Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Stano Pekár
- grid.10267.320000 0001 2194 0956Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic
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Nguyen GTT, O'Brien C, Wouters Y, Seneci L, Gallissà-Calzado A, Campos-Pinto I, Ahmadi S, Laustsen AH, Ljungars A. High-throughput proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of the 26 medically most important elapids and vipers from sub-Saharan Africa. Gigascience 2022; 11:6862934. [PMID: 36509548 PMCID: PMC9744630 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giac121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakes are important parts of the ecosystem, and their behavior and evolution have been shaped by their surrounding environments over the eons. This is reflected in their venoms, which are typically highly adapted for their biological niche, including their diet and defense mechanisms for deterring predators. Sub-Saharan Africa is rich in venomous snake species, of which many are dangerous to humans due to the high toxicity of their venoms and their ability to effectively deliver large amounts of venom into their victims via their bite. In this study, the venoms of 26 of sub-Saharan Africa's medically most relevant elapid and viper species were subjected to parallelized toxicovenomics analysis. The analysis included venom proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of whole venom toxicities, enabling a robust comparison of venom profiles between species. The data presented here corroborate previous studies and provide biochemical details for the clinical manifestations observed in envenomings by the 26 snake species. Moreover, two new venom proteomes (Naja anchietae and Echis leucogaster) are presented here for the first time. Combined, the presented data can help shine light on snake venom evolutionary trends and possibly be used to further improve or develop novel antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yessica Wouters
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lorenzo Seneci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alex Gallissà-Calzado
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Isabel Campos-Pinto
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Correspondence address. Andreas H. Laustsen, Technical University of Denmark, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Søltofts Plads 239, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby. E-mail:
| | - Anne Ljungars
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Bibliometric Analysis of Literature in Snake Venom-Related Research Worldwide (1933–2022). Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12162058. [PMID: 36009648 PMCID: PMC9405337 DOI: 10.3390/ani12162058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Around the world, snake envenomation poses a serious health risk. Proteins with pharmacological effects are present in snake venom. Recent studies elaborate snake venom and its potential application, including as a cancer drug and antibacterial substances. Our study aimed to analyze the global profile of the literature in snake venom research from documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. In total, 2999 documents were published with Brazil showing the highest productivity. Antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are emerging as hot topics on a global scale. The present study offers a distinctive overview of snake venom research conducted worldwide. Abstract Snake envenomation is a severe economic and health concern affecting countries worldwide. Snake venom carries a wide variety of small peptides and proteins with various immunological and pharmacological properties. A few key research areas related to snake venom, including its applications in treating cancer and eradicating antibiotic-resistant bacteria, have been gaining significant attention in recent years. The goal of the current study was to analyze the global profile of literature in snake venom research. This study presents a bibliometric review of snake venom-related research documents indexed in the Scopus database between 1933 and 2022. The overall number of documents published on a global scale was 2999, with an average annual production of 34 documents. Brazil produced the highest number of documents (n = 729), followed by the United States (n = 548), Australia (n = 240), and Costa Rica (n = 235). Since 1963, the number of publications has been steadily increasing globally. At a worldwide level, antivenom, proteomics, and transcriptomics are growing hot issues for research in this field. The current research provides a unique overview of snake venom research at global level from 1933 through 2022, and it may be beneficial in guiding future research.
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do Nascimento SM, de Oliveira UC, Nishiyama-Jr MY, Tashima AK, Silva Junior PID. Presence of a neprilysin on Avicularia juruensis (Mygalomorphae: Theraphosidae) venom. TOXIN REV 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2021.1878226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Soraia Maria do Nascimento
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology – Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program Interunits in Biotechnology, USP/IBu/IPT, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ursula Castro de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology – Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Milton Yutaka Nishiyama-Jr
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology – Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Pedro Ismael da Silva Junior
- Laboratory of Applied Toxinology – Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS/CEPID), Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
- Postgraduate Program Interunits in Biotechnology, USP/IBu/IPT, São Paulo, Brazil
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The Enzymatic Core of Scorpion Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040248. [PMID: 35448857 PMCID: PMC9030722 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes are an integral part of animal venoms. Unlike snakes, in which enzymes play a primary role in envenomation, in scorpions, their function appears to be ancillary in most species. Due to this, studies on the diversity of scorpion venom components have focused primarily on the peptides responsible for envenomation (toxins) and a few others (e.g., antimicrobials), while enzymes have been overlooked. In this work, a comprehensive study on enzyme diversity in scorpion venoms was performed by transcriptomic and proteomic techniques. Enzymes of 63 different EC types were found, belonging to 330 orthogroups. Of them, 24 ECs conform the scorpion venom enzymatic core, since they were determined to be present in all the studied scorpion species. Transferases and lyases are reported for the first time. Novel enzymes, which can play different roles in the venom, including direct toxicity, as venom spreading factors, activators of venom components, venom preservatives, or in prey pre-digestion, were described and annotated. The expression profile for transcripts coding for venom enzymes was analyzed, and shown to be similar among the studied species, while being significantly different from their expression pattern outside the telson.
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11
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Dynamic genetic differentiation drives the widespread structural and functional convergent evolution of snake venom proteinaceous toxins. BMC Biol 2022; 20:4. [PMID: 34996434 PMCID: PMC8742412 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01208-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The explosive radiation and diversification of the advanced snakes (superfamily Colubroidea) was associated with changes in all aspects of the shared venom system. Morphological changes included the partitioning of the mixed ancestral glands into two discrete glands devoted for production of venom or mucous respectively, as well as changes in the location, size and structural elements of the venom-delivering teeth. Evidence also exists for homology among venom gland toxins expressed across the advanced snakes. However, despite the evolutionary novelty of snake venoms, in-depth toxin molecular evolutionary history reconstructions have been mostly limited to those types present in only two front-fanged snake families, Elapidae and Viperidae. To have a broader understanding of toxins shared among extant snakes, here we first sequenced the transcriptomes of eight taxonomically diverse rear-fanged species and four key viperid species and analysed major toxin types shared across the advanced snakes. Results Transcriptomes were constructed for the following families and species: Colubridae - Helicops leopardinus, Heterodon nasicus, Rhabdophis subminiatus; Homalopsidae – Homalopsis buccata; Lamprophiidae - Malpolon monspessulanus, Psammophis schokari, Psammophis subtaeniatus, Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus; and Viperidae – Bitis atropos, Pseudocerastes urarachnoides, Tropidolaeumus subannulatus, Vipera transcaucasiana. These sequences were combined with those from available databases of other species in order to facilitate a robust reconstruction of the molecular evolutionary history of the key toxin classes present in the venom of the last common ancestor of the advanced snakes, and thus present across the full diversity of colubroid snake venoms. In addition to differential rates of evolution in toxin classes between the snake lineages, these analyses revealed multiple instances of previously unknown instances of structural and functional convergences. Structural convergences included: the evolution of new cysteines to form heteromeric complexes, such as within kunitz peptides (the beta-bungarotoxin trait evolving on at least two occasions) and within SVMP enzymes (the P-IIId trait evolving on at least three occasions); and the C-terminal tail evolving on two separate occasions within the C-type natriuretic peptides, to create structural and functional analogues of the ANP/BNP tailed condition. Also shown was that the de novo evolution of new post-translationally liberated toxin families within the natriuretic peptide gene propeptide region occurred on at least five occasions, with novel functions ranging from induction of hypotension to post-synaptic neurotoxicity. Functional convergences included the following: multiple occasions of SVMP neofunctionalised in procoagulant venoms into activators of the clotting factors prothrombin and Factor X; multiple instances in procoagulant venoms where kunitz peptides were neofunctionalised into inhibitors of the clot destroying enzyme plasmin, thereby prolonging the half-life of the clots formed by the clotting activating enzymatic toxins; and multiple occasions of kunitz peptides neofunctionalised into neurotoxins acting on presynaptic targets, including twice just within Bungarus venoms. Conclusions We found novel convergences in both structural and functional evolution of snake toxins. These results provide a detailed roadmap for future work to elucidate predator–prey evolutionary arms races, ascertain differential clinical pathologies, as well as documenting rich biodiscovery resources for lead compounds in the drug design and discovery pipeline. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01208-9.
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Mender MM, Bolton F, Berry C, Young M. Antivenom: An immunotherapy for the treatment of snakebite envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa. ADVANCES IN PROTEIN CHEMISTRY AND STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 2021; 129:435-477. [PMID: 35305724 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apcsb.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming (SBE) leads to significant morbidity and mortality, resulting in over 90,000 deaths and approximately 400,000 amputations annually. In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) alone, SBE accounts for over 30,000 deaths per annum. Since 2017, SBE has been classified as a priority Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The major species responsible for mortality from SBE within SSA are from the Bitis, Dendroaspis, Echis and Naja genera. Pharmacologically active toxins such as metalloproteinases, serine proteinases, 3-finger toxins, kunitz-type toxins, and phospholipase A2s are the primary snake venom components. These toxins induce cytotoxicity, coagulopathy, hemorrhage, and neurotoxicity in envenomed victims. Antivenom is currently the only available venom-specific treatment for SBE and contains purified equine or ovine polyclonal antibodies, collected from donor animals repeatedly immunized with low doses of adjuvanted venom. The resulting plasma or serum contains a high titre of specific antibodies, which can then be collected and stored until required. The purified antibodies are either whole IgG, monovalent fragment antibody (Fab) or divalent fragment antibody F(ab')2. Despite pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic differences, all three are effective in the treatment of SBE. No antivenom is without adverse reactions but, the level of their impact and severity varies from benign early adverse reactions to the rarely occurring fatal anaphylactic shock. However, the major side effects are largely reversible with immediate administration of adrenaline and corticosteroids. There are 16 different antivenoms marketed within SSA, but the efficacy and safety profiles are only published for less than 50% of these products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mender M Mender
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; Department of Research and Development, MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, United Kingdom.
| | - Fiona Bolton
- Department of Research and Development, MicroPharm Ltd, Newcastle Emlyn, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Berry
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Young
- School of Bioscience, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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Jenkins TP, Ahmadi S, Bittenbinder MA, Stewart TK, Akgun DE, Hale M, Nasrabadi NN, Wolff DS, Vonk FJ, Kool J, Laustsen AH. Terrestrial venomous animals, the envenomings they cause, and treatment perspectives in the Middle East and North Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009880. [PMID: 34855751 PMCID: PMC8638997 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The Middle East and Northern Africa, collectively known as the MENA region, are inhabited by a plethora of venomous animals that cause up to 420,000 bites and stings each year. To understand the resultant health burden and the key variables affecting it, this review describes the epidemiology of snake, scorpion, and spider envenomings primarily based on heterogenous hospital data in the MENA region and the pathologies associated with their venoms. In addition, we discuss the venom composition and the key medically relevant toxins of these venomous animals, and, finally, the antivenoms that are currently in use to counteract them. Unlike Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, scorpion stings are significantly more common (approximately 350,000 cases/year) than snakebites (approximately 70,000 cases/year) and present the most significant contributor to the overall health burden of envenomings, with spider bites being negligible. However, this review also indicates that there is a substantial lack of high-quality envenoming data available for the MENA region, rendering many of these estimates speculative. Our understanding of the venoms and the toxins they contain is also incomplete, but already presents clear trends. For instance, the majority of snake venoms contain snake venom metalloproteinases, while sodium channel-binding toxins and potassium channel-binding toxins are the scorpion toxins that cause most health-related challenges. There also currently exist a plethora of antivenoms, yet only few are clinically validated, and their high cost and limited availability present a substantial health challenge. Yet, some of the insights presented in this review might help direct future research and policy efforts toward the appropriate prioritization of efforts and aid the development of future therapeutic solutions, such as next-generation antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy P Jenkins
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Matyas A Bittenbinder
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Trenton K Stewart
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Dilber E Akgun
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Eskişehir, Turkey
| | - Melissa Hale
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Nafiseh N Nasrabadi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Centre, Student Research Commitee, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Venomous Animals and Antivenom Production, Razi Vaccine, and Serum Research Institute, Karaj, Iran
| | - Darian S Wolff
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Amsterdam Institute for Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Venom proteomic analysis of medically important Nigerian viper Echis ocellatus and Bitis arietans snake species. Biochem Biophys Rep 2021; 28:101164. [PMID: 34765747 PMCID: PMC8571701 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2021.101164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming remains a neglected tropical disease which poses severe health hazard, especially for the rural inhabitants in Africa. In Nigeria, vipers are responsible for the highest number of deaths. Hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled with LC-MS/MS was used to analyze the crude venoms of Echis ocellatus (Carpet viper) and Bitis arietans (Puff adder) in order to understand their venom proteomic identities. Results obtained revealed that gel-free proteomic analysis of the crude venoms led to the identification of 85 and 79 proteins, respectively. Seventy-eight (78) proteins were common between the two snake species with a 91.8% similarity score. The identified proteins belong to 18 protein families in E. ocellatus and 14 protein families in B. arietans. Serine proteases (22.31%) and metalloproteinases (21.06%) were the dominant proteins in the venom of B. arietans; while metalloproteinases (34.84%), phospholipase A2s (21.19%) and serine proteases (15.50%) represent the major toxins in the E. ocellatus venom. Other protein families such as three-finger toxins and cysteine-rich venom proteins were detected in low proportions. This study provides an insight into the venom proteomic analysis of the two Nigerian viper species, which could be useful in identifying the toxin families to be neutralized in case of envenomation. Venom proteomic of Nigeria's most medically important snakes is presented. SVMP, SVSP and PLA2 were the major toxin families in E. ocellatus and B. arietans. The venom proteomes of these vipers displayed 91.8% similarity in composition.
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Modahl CM, Saviola AJ, Mackessy SP. Integration of transcriptomic and proteomic approaches for snake venom profiling. Expert Rev Proteomics 2021; 18:827-834. [PMID: 34663159 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2021.1995357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Snake venoms contain many protein and peptide isoforms with high levels of sequence variation, even within a single species. AREAS COVERED In this review, we highlight several examples, from both published and unpublished work in our lab, demonstrating how a combined venom gland transcriptome and proteome methodology allows for comprehensive characterization of venoms, including those from understudied rear-fanged snake species, and we provide recommendations for using these approaches. EXPERT OPINION When characterizing venoms, peptide mass fingerprinting using databases built predominately from protein sequences originating from model organisms can be disadvantageous, especially when the intention is to document protein diversity. Therefore, the use of species-specific venom gland transcriptomes corrects for the absence of these unique peptide sequences in databases. The integration of transcriptomics and proteomics improves the accuracy of either approach alone for venom profiling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, USA
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Liao X, Guo S, Yin X, Liao B, Li M, Su H, Li Q, Pei J, Gao J, Lei J, Li X, Huang Z, Xu J, Chen S. Hierarchical chromatin features reveal the toxin production in Bungarus multicinctus. Chin Med 2021; 16:90. [PMID: 34535171 PMCID: PMC8447776 DOI: 10.1186/s13020-021-00502-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bungarus multicinctus, from which a classical Chinese medicine is produced, is known as the most venomous land snake in the world, but the chromatin organization and transcription factor activity during venom replenishment progress have not been explored yet. This study aimed to determine the roles of chromatin structure in toxin activity via bioinformatics and experimental validation. METHODS Chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) analysis was used to examine interactions among chromosomes and identify different scales of chromatin during envenomation in B. multicinctus. Correlations between epigenetic modifications and chromatin structure were verified through ChIP-seq analysis. RNA-seq was used to validate the influence of variation in chromatin structure and gene expression levels on venom production and regulation. RESULTS Our results suggested that intra-chromosomal interactions are more intense than inter-chromosomal interactions among the control group, 3-day group of venom glands and muscles. Through this, we found that compartmental transition was correlated with chromatin interactions. Interestingly, the up-regulated genes in more compartmental switch regions reflect the function of toxin activity. Topologically associated domain (TAD) boundaries enriched with histone modifications are associated with different distributions of genes and the expression levels. Toxin-coding genes in the same loop are highly expressed, implying that the importance of epigenetic regulation during envenomination. On a smaller scale, the epigenetic markers affect transcriptional regulation by controlling the recruitment/inhibition of transcription initiation complexes. CONCLUSIONS Chromatin structure and epigenetic modifications could play a vital status role in the mechanisms of venom regulation in B. multicinctus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuejiao Liao
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Shuai Guo
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Xianmei Yin
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Baosheng Liao
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Mingqian Li
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - He Su
- Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Qiushi Li
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Jin Pei
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Jihai Gao
- Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Juan Lei
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Xiwen Li
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China
| | - Zhihai Huang
- Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Jiang Xu
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China.
| | - Shilin Chen
- Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100700, China.
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Anti-5'-Nucleotidases (5'-ND) and Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Activities of Medicinal Plants to Combat Echis carinatus Venom-Induced Toxicities. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6631042. [PMID: 33614782 PMCID: PMC7878093 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6631042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Echis carinatus is one of the highly venomous snakes of Pakistan that is responsible for numerous cases of envenomation and deaths. In Pakistan, medicinal plants are commonly used traditionally for snakebite treatment because of their low cost and easy availability in comparison with antivenom. The current research is aimed at evaluating the inhibitory activity of Pakistani medicinal plants against acetylcholinesterase and 5′-nucleotidases present in Echis carinatus venom. Acetylcholinesterase and 5′-nucleotidase enzymatic assays were performed at different venom concentrations to check the activity of these enzymes. Methanolic extracts from different parts of plants were used for in vitro determination of their inhibitory activity against 5′-nucleotidases in snake venom. Active methanolic extracts were subsequently fractioned using different solvents, and these fractions were also assessed for their anti-5′-nucleotidase activity. Results of this study exhibited that Eugenia jambolana Willd. ex O. Berg, Rubia cordifolia L., Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br., Calotropis procera (Wild.) R. Br., Curcuma longa L., and Fagonia arabica L. were able to significantly (p > 0.5) neutralize the 5′-nucleotidase activity by 88%, 86%, 86%, 85%, 83.7%, and 83%, respectively, compared with a standard antidote (snake venom antiserum). Thus, this study indicates that these plants possess the potential to neutralize one of the toxic enzymatic components of Echis carinatus venom and hence can help to augment the future efforts of developing alternative therapy for the management of snakebites.
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Youngman NJ, Chowdhury A, Zdenek CN, Coster K, Sundman E, Braun R, Fry BG. Utilising venom activity to infer dietary composition of the Kenyan horned viper (Bitis worthingtoni). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 240:108921. [PMID: 33122136 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Bitis are well known for being some of the most commonly encountered and medically important snake species in all of Africa. While the majority of species possess potently anticoagulant venom, only B. worthingtoni is known to possess procoagulant venom. Although known to be the basal species within the genus, B. worthingtoni is an almost completely unstudied species with even basic dietary information lacking. This study investigated various aspects of the unique procoagulant effects of B. worthingtoni venom. Coagulation assays determined the primary procoagulant effect to be driven by Factor X activating snake venom metalloprotease toxins. In addition to acting upon the mammalian blood clotting cascade, B. worthingtoni venom was also shown to clot amphibian plasma. As previous studies have shown differences in clotting factors between amphibian and mammalian plasmas, individual enzymes in snake venoms acting on plasma clotting factors can be taxon-selective. As venoms evolve under purifying selection pressures, this suggests that the procoagulant snake venom metalloprotease toxins present in B. worthingtoni have likely been retained from a recent common ancestor shared with the related amphibian-feeding Proatheris superciliaris, and that both amphibians and mammals represent a substantial proportion of B. worthingtoni current diet. Thus, taxon-specific actions of venoms may have utility in inferring dietary composition for rare or difficult to study species. An important caveat is that to validate this hypothesis field studies investigating the dietary ecology of B. worthingtoni must be conducted, as well as further investigations of its venom composition to reconstruct the molecular evolutionary history of the toxins present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Youngman
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Abhinandan Chowdhury
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | | | - Eric Sundman
- Universeum, Södra Vägen 50, 412 54 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ralph Braun
- Serpentarium Calden, Birkenweg 11, 34379 Calden, Germany
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Ghezellou P, Albuquerque W, Garikapati V, Casewell NR, Kazemi SM, Ghassempour A, Spengler B. Integrating Top-Down and Bottom-Up Mass Spectrometric Strategies for Proteomic Profiling of Iranian Saw-Scaled Viper, Echis carinatus sochureki, Venom. J Proteome Res 2020; 20:895-908. [PMID: 33225711 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Saw-scaled or carpet vipers (genus Echis) are considered to cause a higher global snakebite mortality than any other snake. Echis carinatus sochureki (ECS) is a widely distributed snake species, also found across the thirteen provinces of Iran, where it is assumed to be responsible for the most snakebite envenomings. Here, we collected the Iranian specimens of ECS from three different geographically distinct populations, investigated food habits, and performed toxicity assessment and venom proteome profiling to better understand saw-scaled viper life. Our results show that the prey items most commonly found in all populations were arthropods, with scorpions from the family Buthidae particularly well represented. LD50 (median lethal dose) values of the crude venom demonstrate highly comparable venom toxicities in mammals. Consistent with this finding, venom characterization via top-down and bottom-up proteomics, applied to both crude venoms and size-exclusion chromatographic fractions, revealed highly comparable venom compositions among the different populations. By combining all proteomics data, we identified 22 protein families from 102 liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) raw files, including the most abundant snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs, 29-34%); phospholipase A2 (PLA2s, 26-31%); snake venom serine proteinases (SVSPs, 11-12%); l-amino acid oxidases (LAOs, 8-11%), C-type lectins/lectin-like (CTLs, 7-9%) protein families, and many newly detected ones, e.g., renin-like aspartic proteases (RLAPs), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerases (PPIs), and venom vasodilator peptides (VVPs). Furthermore, we identified and characterized methylated, acetylated, and oxidized proteoforms relating to the PLA2 and disintegrin toxin families and the site of their modifications. It thus seems that post-translational modifications (PTMs) of toxins, particularly target lysine residues, may play an essential role in the structural and functional properties of venom proteins and might be able to influence the therapeutic response of antivenoms, to be investigated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parviz Ghezellou
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen 35392, Germany
| | - Wendell Albuquerque
- Institute of Food Chemistry and Food Biotechnology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen 35392, Germany
| | - Vannuruswamy Garikapati
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen 35392, Germany
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, U.K
| | - Seyed Mahdi Kazemi
- Medicinal Plants and Drugs Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran 1983963113, Iran
| | - Alireza Ghassempour
- Medicinal Plants and Drugs Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran 1983963113, Iran
| | - Bernhard Spengler
- Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen 35392, Germany
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Ochoa A, Broe M, Moriarty Lemmon E, Lemmon AR, Rokyta DR, Gibbs HL. Drift, selection and adaptive variation in small populations of a threatened rattlesnake. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:2612-2625. [PMID: 32557885 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
An important goal of conservation genetics is to determine if the viability of small populations is reduced by a loss of adaptive variation due to genetic drift. Here, we assessed the impact of drift and selection on direct measures of adaptive variation (toxin loci encoding venom proteins) in the eastern massasauga rattlesnake (Sistrurus catenatus), a threatened reptile that exists in small isolated populations. We estimated levels of individual polymorphism in 46 toxin loci and 1,467 control loci across 12 populations of this species, and compared the results with patterns of selection on the same loci following speciation of S. catenatus and its closest relative, the western massasauga (S. tergeminus). Multiple lines of evidence suggest that both drift and selection have had observable impacts on standing adaptive variation. In support of drift effects, we found little evidence for selection on toxin variation within populations and a significant positive relationship between current levels of adaptive variation and long- and short-term estimates of effective population size. However, we also observed levels of directional selection on toxin loci among populations that are broadly similar to patterns predicted from interspecific selection analyses that pre-date the effects of recent drift, and that functional variation in these loci persists despite small short-term effective sizes. This suggests that much of the adaptive variation present in populations may represent an example of "drift debt," a nonequilibrium state where present-day levels of variation overestimate the amount of functional genetic diversity present in future populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Ochoa
- Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership and Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Michael Broe
- Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership and Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | | | - Alan R Lemmon
- Department of Scientific Computing, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership and Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
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Kryukova EV, Vulfius CA, Ziganshin RH, Andreeva TV, Starkov VG, Tsetlin VI, Utkin YN. Snake C-type lectin-like proteins inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. JOURNAL OF VENOM RESEARCH 2020; 10:23-29. [PMID: 33024544 PMCID: PMC7512478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Venoms of viperid snakes affect mostly hemostasis, while C-type lectin-like proteins (CTLPs), one of the main components of viperid venoms, act as anticoagulants, procoagulants, or agonists/antagonists of platelet activation. However, we have shown earlier that CTLPs from the saw-scaled viper Echis multisquamatus, called emunarecins EM1 and EM2, were able to inhibit nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in neurons of a pond snail (Lymnaea stagnalis). Here we analysed the structure of the emunarecins by mass spectrometry and report that EM1 and EM2 inhibit fluorescent α-bungarotoxin binding to both muscle-type nAChRs from Torpedo californica and human neuronal α7 nAChRs. EM1 at 23µM and EM2 at 9µM almost completely prevented fluorecsent α-bungarotoxin binding to muscle-type nAChRs. Interaction with human neuronal α7 nAChR was weaker; EM1 at the concentration of 23µM blocked the α-bungarotoxin binding only by about 40% and EM2 at 9µM by about 20%. The efficiency of the EM2 interaction with nAChRs was comparable to that of a non-conventional toxin, WTX, from Naja kaouthia cobra venom. Together with the data obtained earlier, these results show that CTLPs may represent new nAChR ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Kryukova
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Catherine A Vulfius
- 2Institute of Cell Biophysics Russian Academy of Sciences, 3 Institutskaya Street, Pushchino Moscow region, 142290, Russia
| | - Rustam H Ziganshin
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Tatyana V Andreeva
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Vladislav G Starkov
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Victor I Tsetlin
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Yuri N Utkin
- 1Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia,*Correspondence to: Yuri Utkin, E-mail: ; , Tel/Fax: +74953366522
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22
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Patra A, Mukherjee AK. Proteomic Analysis of Sri Lanka Echis carinatus Venom: Immunological Cross-Reactivity and Enzyme Neutralization Potency of Indian Polyantivenom. J Proteome Res 2020; 19:3022-3032. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aparup Patra
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India
| | - Ashis K. Mukherjee
- Microbial Biotechnology and Protein Research Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India
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23
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Albulescu LO, Hale MS, Ainsworth S, Alsolaiss J, Crittenden E, Calvete JJ, Evans C, Wilkinson MC, Harrison RA, Kool J, Casewell NR. Preclinical validation of a repurposed metal chelator as an early-intervention therapeutic for hemotoxic snakebite. Sci Transl Med 2020; 12:eaay8314. [PMID: 32376771 PMCID: PMC7116364 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay8314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Snakebite envenoming causes 138,000 deaths annually, and ~400,000 victims are left with permanent disabilities. Envenoming by saw-scaled vipers (Viperidae: Echis) leads to systemic hemorrhage and coagulopathy and represents a major cause of snakebite mortality and morbidity in Africa and Asia. The only specific treatment for snakebite, antivenom, has poor specificity and low affordability and must be administered in clinical settings because of its intravenous delivery and high rates of adverse reactions. This requirement results in major treatment delays in resource-poor regions and substantially affects patient outcomes after envenoming. Here, we investigated the value of metal ion chelators as prehospital therapeutics for snakebite. Among the tested chelators, dimercaprol (British anti-Lewisite) and its derivative 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS) were found to potently antagonize the activity of Zn2+-dependent snake venom metalloproteinases in vitro. Moreover, DMPS prolonged or conferred complete survival in murine preclinical models of envenoming against a variety of saw-scaled viper venoms. DMPS also considerably extended survival in a "challenge and treat" model, where drug administration was delayed after venom injection and the oral administration of this chelator provided partial protection against envenoming. Last, the potential clinical scenario of early oral DMPS therapy combined with a delayed, intravenous dose of conventional antivenom provided prolonged protection against the lethal effects of envenoming in vivo. Our findings demonstrate that the safe and affordable repurposed metal chelator DMPS can effectively neutralize saw-scaled viper venoms in vitro and in vivo and highlight the promise of this drug as an early, prehospital, therapeutic intervention for hemotoxic snakebite envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Melissa S Hale
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Stuart Ainsworth
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Jaffer Alsolaiss
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Edouard Crittenden
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia 46010, Spain
| | - Chloe Evans
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Mark C Wilkinson
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1083, 1081HV Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research and Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK.
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA Liverpool, UK
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24
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Neumann C, Slagboom J, Somsen GW, Vonk F, Casewell NR, Cardoso CL, Kool J. Development of a generic high-throughput screening assay for profiling snake venom protease activity after high-resolution chromatographic fractionation. Toxicon 2020; 178:61-68. [PMID: 32112787 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Snakebites cause upwards of 1.8 million envenomings, 138,000 deaths and 500,000 cases of long term morbidity each year. Viper snake venoms (family Viperidae) generally contain a high proportion of proteases which can cause devastating effects such as hemorrhage, coagulopathy, edema, necrosis, and severe pain, in envenomed victims. In this study, analytical techniques were combined with enzymatic assays to develop a novel method for the detection of snake venom protease activity by using rhodamine-110-peptide substrate. In the so called at-line nanofractionation set up, crude venoms were first separated with reversed phase liquid chromatography, after which fractions were collected onto 384-well plates. Protease activity assays were then performed in the 384-well plates and bioassay chromatograms were constructed revealing protease activity. Parallel obtained UV absorbance, MS and proteomics data from a previous study facilitated toxin identification. The application of the rhodamine-110-peptide substrate assay showed significantly greater sensitivity compared to prior assays using casein-FITC as the substrate. Moreover, cross referencing UV and MS data and resulted in the detection of a number of tentative proteases suspected to exhibit protease activity, including snake venom serine proteases from Calloselasma rhodostoma and Daboia russelli venom and a snake venom metalloproteinase from the venom of Echis ocellatus. Our data demonstrate that his methodology can be a useful tool for selectively identifying snake venom proteases, and can be applied to provide a better understanding of protease-induced pathologies and the development of novel therapeutics for treating snakebite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Coleen Neumann
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Govert W Somsen
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Freek Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR, Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - Carmen L Cardoso
- Departamento de Química, Grupo de Cromatografia de Bioafinidade e Produtos Naturais - Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto - Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecules, Medicines and Systems, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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25
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Xie C, Slagboom J, Albulescu LO, Bruyneel B, Still KBM, Vonk FJ, Somsen GW, Casewell NR, Kool J. Antivenom Neutralization of Coagulopathic Snake Venom Toxins Assessed by Bioactivity Profiling Using Nanofractionation Analytics. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E53. [PMID: 31963329 PMCID: PMC7020444 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12010053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakebite is one of the world's most lethal neglected tropical diseases. Animal-derived antivenoms are the only standardized specific therapies currently available for treating snakebite envenoming, but due to venom variation, often this treatment is not effective in counteracting all clinical symptoms caused by the multitude of injected toxins. In this study, the coagulopathic toxicities of venoms from the medically relevant snake species Bothropsasper, Calloselasmarhodostoma, Deinagkistrodonacutus, Daboiarusselii, Echiscarinatus and Echisocellatus were assessed. The venoms were separated by liquid chromatography (LC) followed by nanofractionation and parallel mass spectrometry (MS). A recently developed high-throughput coagulation assay was employed to assess both the pro- and anticoagulant activity of separated venom toxins. The neutralization capacity of antivenoms on separated venom components was assessed and the coagulopathic venom peptides and enzymes that were either neutralized or remained active in the presence of antivenom were identified by correlating bioassay results with the MS data and with off-line generated proteomics data. The results showed that most snake venoms analyzed contained both procoagulants and anticoagulants. Most anticoagulants were identified as phospholipases A2s (PLA2s) and most procoagulants correlated with snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and serine proteases (SVSPs). This information can be used to better understand antivenom neutralization and can aid in the development of next-generation antivenom treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunfang Xie
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (C.X.); (J.S.); (B.B.); (K.B.M.S.); (G.W.S.)
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (C.X.); (J.S.); (B.B.); (K.B.M.S.); (G.W.S.)
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK (N.R.C.)
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Ben Bruyneel
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (C.X.); (J.S.); (B.B.); (K.B.M.S.); (G.W.S.)
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Kristina B. M. Still
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (C.X.); (J.S.); (B.B.); (K.B.M.S.); (G.W.S.)
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Freek J. Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Govert W. Somsen
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (C.X.); (J.S.); (B.B.); (K.B.M.S.); (G.W.S.)
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK (N.R.C.)
- Centre for Drugs and Diagnostics, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands; (C.X.); (J.S.); (B.B.); (K.B.M.S.); (G.W.S.)
- Centre for Analytical Sciences Amsterdam (CASA), 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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26
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Glatstein M, Lerman L, Friedman S, Carbell G, Munchak I, Valla U, Scolnik D, Hoyte C. Severe disseminated intravascular coagulation in a child envenomated by Echis coloratus and successful treatment with monovalent equine immunoglobulin G antivenom. Toxicon 2019; 167:82-86. [PMID: 31150660 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Echis coloratus (Burton Carpet viper), a highly venomous snake belonging to the family Viperidae, is responsible for a large proportion of the venomous snakebites in Israel and Palestinian Authority. Procoagulant enzymes are present in Echis coloratus venom and significant coagulopathy is typical after envenomation. Here we report a case of envenomation by Echis coloratus that involved severe coagulopathy as the main systemic manifestation with severe bleeding after fasciotomy. CASE DETAILS A 3-year-old boy was admitted to our pediatric critical care unit after a snakebite to his left hand, 2-3 hours post-bite. Based on the possibility of compartment syndrome, a fasciotomy was performed before administration of antivenom. At our hospital, he had altered prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), with low fibrinogen levels. The snake responsible for the bite was later identified as a 38-cm long Echis coloratus. Five vials of Israeli monovalent antivenom were subsequently administered with step-wise improvement in hematological abnormalities. Other treatments included massive blood products transfusion (packed RBC, FFP, cryoprecipitate, PLT), inotropes and ventilatory support. After a prolonged hospital course the patient had a positive outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Glatstein
- Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital, Sackler School of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Israel; Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology. Sourasky Medical Center. Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv. Israel.
| | - Liat Lerman
- Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital, Sackler School of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Shirley Friedman
- Department of Pediatric Critical Care Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital, Sackler School of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Gary Carbell
- Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine Dana-Dwek Children's Hospital, Sackler School of Medicine, University of Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Itamar Munchak
- Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Galilee Medical Center, Nahariya, Israel
| | - Uri Valla
- Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Kaplan Medical Center, Jerusalem University, Israel
| | - Dennis Scolnik
- Divisions of Pediatric Emergency Medicine and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Pediatrics, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher Hoyte
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology. Sourasky Medical Center. Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv. Israel; Department of Emergency Medicine and Section of Medical Toxicology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, USA; Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, USA
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27
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Petras D, Hempel BF, Göçmen B, Karis M, Whiteley G, Wagstaff SC, Heiss P, Casewell NR, Nalbantsoy A, Süssmuth RD. Intact protein mass spectrometry reveals intraspecies variations in venom composition of a local population of Vipera kaznakovi in Northeastern Turkey. J Proteomics 2019; 199:31-50. [PMID: 30763806 PMCID: PMC7613002 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We report on the variable venom composition of a population of the Caucasus viper (Vipera kaznakovi) in Northeastern Turkey. We applied a combination of venom gland transcriptomics, de-complexing bottom-up and top-down venomics. In contrast to sole bottom-up venomics approaches and gel or chromatography based venom comparison, our combined approach enables a faster and more detailed comparison of venom proteomes from multiple individuals. In total, we identified peptides and proteins from 15 toxin families, including snake venom metalloproteinases (svMP; 37.8%), phospholipases A2 (PLA2; 19.0%), snake venom serine proteinases (svSP; 11.5%), C-type lectins (CTL; 6.9%) and cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP; 5.0%), in addition to several low abundant toxin families. Furthermore, we identified intraspecies variations of the venom composition of V. kaznakovi, and find these were mainly driven by the age of the animals, with lower svSP abundance detected in juveniles. On the proteoform level, several small molecular weight toxins between 5 and 8 kDa in size, as well as PLA2s, drove the differences observed between juvenile and adult individuals. This study provides novel insights into the venom variability of V. kaznakovi and highlights the utility of intact mass profiling for fast and detailed comparison of snake venom. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Population level and ontogenetic venom variation (e.g. diet, habitat, sex or age) can result in a loss of antivenom efficacy against snakebites from wide ranging snake populations. The current state of the art for the analysis of snake venoms are de-complexing bottom-up proteomics approaches. While useful, these have the significant drawback of being time-consuming and following costly protocols, and consequently are often applied to pooled venom samples. To overcome these shortcomings and to enable rapid and detailed profiling of large numbers of individual venom samples, we integrated an intact protein analysis workflow into a transcriptomics-guided bottom-up approach. The application of this workflow to snake individuals of a local population of V. kaznakovi revealed intraspecies variations in venom composition, which are primarily explained by the age of the animals, and highlighted svSP abundance to be one of the molecular drivers for the compositional differences observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Petras
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany; University of California San Diego, Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, United States.
| | - Benjamin-Florian Hempel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bayram Göçmen
- Zoology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Mert Karis
- Zoology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ege University, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Research Computing Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Heiss
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Ayse Nalbantsoy
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Bornova 35100, Izmir, Turkey.
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
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28
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Schield DR, Card DC, Hales NR, Perry BW, Pasquesi GM, Blackmon H, Adams RH, Corbin AB, Smith CF, Ramesh B, Demuth JP, Betrán E, Tollis M, Meik JM, Mackessy SP, Castoe TA. The origins and evolution of chromosomes, dosage compensation, and mechanisms underlying venom regulation in snakes. Genome Res 2019; 29:590-601. [PMID: 30898880 PMCID: PMC6442385 DOI: 10.1101/gr.240952.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Here we use a chromosome-level genome assembly of a prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis), together with Hi-C, RNA-seq, and whole-genome resequencing data, to study key features of genome biology and evolution in reptiles. We identify the rattlesnake Z Chromosome, including the recombining pseudoautosomal region, and find evidence for partial dosage compensation driven by an evolutionary accumulation of a female-biased up-regulation mechanism. Comparative analyses with other amniotes provide new insight into the origins, structure, and function of reptile microchromosomes, which we demonstrate have markedly different structure and function compared to macrochromosomes. Snake microchromosomes are also enriched for venom genes, which we show have evolved through multiple tandem duplication events in multiple gene families. By overlaying chromatin structure information and gene expression data, we find evidence for venom gene-specific chromatin contact domains and identify how chromatin structure guides precise expression of multiple venom gene families. Further, we find evidence for venom gland-specific transcription factor activity and characterize a complement of mechanisms underlying venom production and regulation. Our findings reveal novel and fundamental features of reptile genome biology, provide insight into the regulation of snake venom, and broadly highlight the biological insight enabled by chromosome-level genome assemblies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Daren C Card
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Nicole R Hales
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Giulia M Pasquesi
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Heath Blackmon
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Richard H Adams
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Andrew B Corbin
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Cara F Smith
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado 80639, USA
| | - Balan Ramesh
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Jeffery P Demuth
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Esther Betrán
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
| | - Marc Tollis
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, USA
| | - Jesse M Meik
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State University, Stephenville, Texas 76402, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado 80639, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 76010, USA
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29
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Kalogeropoulos K, Treschow AF, Auf dem Keller U, Escalante T, Rucavado A, Gutiérrez JM, Laustsen AH, Workman CT. Protease Activity Profiling of Snake Venoms Using High-Throughput Peptide Screening. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11030170. [PMID: 30893860 PMCID: PMC6468401 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and snake venom serine proteinases (SVSPs) are among the most abundant enzymes in many snake venoms, particularly among viperids. These proteinases are responsible for some of the clinical manifestations classically seen in viperid envenomings, including hemorrhage, necrosis, and coagulopathies. The objective of this study was to investigate the enzymatic activities of these proteins using a high-throughput peptide library to screen for the proteinase targets of the venoms of five viperid (Echis carinatus, Bothrops asper, Daboia russelii, Bitis arietans, Bitis gabonica) and one elapid (Naja nigricollis) species of high medical importance. The proteinase activities of these venoms were each tested against 360 peptide substrates, yielding 2160 activity profiles. A nonlinear regression model that accurately described the observed enzymatic activities was fitted to the experimental data, allowing for the comparison of cleavage rates across species. In this study, previously unknown protein targets of snake venom proteinases were identified, potentially implicating novel human and animal proteins that may be involved in the pathophysiology of viper envenomings. The functional relevance of these targets was further evaluated and discussed. These new findings may contribute to our understanding of the clinical manifestations and underlying biochemical mechanisms of snakebite envenoming by viperid species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ulrich Auf dem Keller
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Teresa Escalante
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Alexandra Rucavado
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | | | - Christopher T Workman
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
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Kunalan S, Othman I, Syed Hassan S, Hodgson WC. Proteomic Characterization of Two Medically Important Malaysian Snake Venoms, Calloselasma rhodostoma (Malayan Pit Viper) and Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra). Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10110434. [PMID: 30373186 PMCID: PMC6266455 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Calloselasma rhodostoma (CR) and Ophiophagus hannah (OH) are two medically important snakes found in Malaysia. While some studies have described the biological properties of these venoms, feeding and environmental conditions also influence the concentration and distribution of snake venom toxins, resulting in variations in venom composition. Therefore, a combined proteomic approach using shotgun and gel filtration chromatography, analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry, was used to examine the composition of venoms from these Malaysian snakes. The analysis revealed 114 proteins (15 toxin families) and 176 proteins (20 toxin families) in Malaysian Calloselasma rhodostoma and Ophiophagus hannah species, respectively. Flavin monoamine oxidase, phospholipase A2, phosphodiesterase, snake venom metalloproteinase, and serine protease toxin families were identified in both venoms. Aminopeptidase, glutaminyl-peptide cyclotransferase along with ankyrin repeats were identified for the first time in CR venom, and insulin, c-type lectins/snaclecs, hepatocyte growth factor, and macrophage colony-stimulating factor together with tumor necrosis factor were identified in OH venom for the first time. Our combined proteomic approach has identified a comprehensive arsenal of toxins in CR and OH venoms. These data may be utilized for improved antivenom production, understanding pathological effects of envenoming, and the discovery of biologically active peptides with medical and/or biotechnological value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sugita Kunalan
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500, Malaysia.
| | - Iekhsan Othman
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500, Malaysia.
| | - Sharifah Syed Hassan
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway, Selangor Darul Ehsan 47500, Malaysia.
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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31
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Wiezel GA, Shibao PYT, Cologna CT, Morandi Filho R, Ueira-Vieira C, De Pauw E, Quinton L, Arantes EC. In-Depth Venome of the Brazilian Rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus: An Integrative Approach Combining Its Venom Gland Transcriptome and Venom Proteome. J Proteome Res 2018; 17:3941-3958. [PMID: 30270628 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.8b00610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Snake venoms are complex mixtures mainly composed of proteins and small peptides. Crotoxin is one of the most studied components from Crotalus venoms, but many other components are less known due to their low abundance. The venome of Crotalus durissus terrificus, the most lethal Brazilian snake, was investigated by combining its venom gland transcriptome and proteome to create a holistic database of venom compounds unraveling novel toxins. We constructed a cDNA library from C. d. terrificus venom gland using the Illumina platform and investigated its venom proteome through high resolution liquid chromotography-tandem mass spectrometry. After integrating data from both data sets, more than 30 venom components classes were identified by the transcriptomic analysis and 15 of them were detected in the venom proteome. However, few of them (PLA2, SVMP, SVSP, and VEGF) were relatively abundant. Furthermore, only seven expressed transcripts contributed to ∼82% and ∼73% of the abundance in the transcriptome and proteome, respectively. Additionally, novel venom proteins are reported, and we highlight the importance of using different databases to perform the data integration and discuss the structure of the venom components-related transcripts identified. Concluding, this research paves the way for novel investigations and discovery of future pharmacological agents or targets in the antivenom therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisele A Wiezel
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto , University of São Paulo , Av. do Café, s/n , 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
| | - Priscila Y T Shibao
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto , University of São Paulo , Av. do Café, s/n , 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
| | - Camila T Cologna
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto , University of São Paulo , Av. do Café, s/n , 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
| | - Romualdo Morandi Filho
- Laboratory of Genetics, Biotechnology Institute , Federal University of Uberlândia , Rua Acre, s/n , 38400-902 Uberlândia , Brazil
| | - Carlos Ueira-Vieira
- Laboratory of Genetics, Biotechnology Institute , Federal University of Uberlândia , Rua Acre, s/n , 38400-902 Uberlândia , Brazil
| | - Edwin De Pauw
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, MolSys Research Unit, Department of Chemistry , University of Liège , Bat. B6c , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Loïc Quinton
- Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, MolSys Research Unit, Department of Chemistry , University of Liège , Bat. B6c , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Eliane C Arantes
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto , University of São Paulo , Av. do Café, s/n , 14040-903 Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
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32
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Pekár S, Líznarová E, Bočánek O, Zdráhal Z. Venom of prey-specialized spiders is more toxic to their preferred prey: A result of prey-specific toxins. J Anim Ecol 2018; 87:1639-1652. [PMID: 30125357 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In specialized predators, a variety of adaptations have evolved to such a level of specificity that they allow very effective exploitation of focal prey. Venom is an essential adaptive trait of predatory venomous species, such as spiders, yet our knowledge of spider venom is incomplete. In agreement with the prey preference hypothesis, we expected that the venom of spider specialists should be more toxic to focal than to alternative prey, because it is composed of prey-specific toxins. Here we used spiders with three types of trophic specializations: specialists that were ant-eating, termite-eating and spider-eating. We compared the efficacy of prey capture of preferred and alternative prey (measured as paralysis latency) with that of related generalists and profiled the venom of the studied species using proteomic methods. We used 22 spider species: six myrmecophagous, two termitophagous, three araneophagous and 11 euryphagous generalist species belonging to different families. We found that ten of the eleven specialist species induced significantly shorter paralysis latency in preferred prey than in alternative prey. Generalists exhibited either similar efficiency on both prey types or slightly higher efficiency on preferred prey. Multivariate analysis of proteomic profiles (peptides and proteins) revealed significant differences between trophic specializations, particularly in peptides. Specialists appear to have venom composed of unique specific compounds as revealed by the multivariate ordination and indicator analysis. These components are likely prey-specific toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Líznarová
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Bočánek
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbyněk Zdráhal
- Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,National Centre for Biomolecular Research, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
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33
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Coimbra FCP, Dobson J, Zdenek CN, Op den Brouw B, Hamilton B, Debono J, Masci P, Frank N, Ge L, Kwok HF, Fry BG. Does size matter? Venom proteomic and functional comparison between night adder species (Viperidae: Causus) with short and long venom glands. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 211:7-14. [PMID: 29758383 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2018] [Revised: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Night adders (Causus species within the Viperidae family) are amphibian specialists and a common source of snakebite in Africa. Some species are unique in that they have the longest venom glands of any viper, extending approximately 10% of the body length. Despite their potential medical importance and evolutionary novelty, their venom has received almost no research attention. In this study, venoms from a short-glanded species (C. lichtensteinii) and from a long-glanded species (C. rhombeatus) were compared using a series of proteomic and bioactivity testing techniques to investigate and compare the toxin composition and functioning of the venoms of these two species. Both C. rhombeatus and C. lichtensteinii were similar in overall venom composition and inhibition of blood coagulation through non-clotting proteolytic cleavage of fibrinogen. While the 1D gel profiles were very similar to each other in the toxin types present, 2D gel analyses revealed isoformic differences within each toxin classes. This variation was congruent with differential efficacy of South African Institute for Medical Research snake polyvalent antivenom, with C. lichtensteinii unaffected at the dose tested while C. rhombeatus was moderately but significantly neutralized. Despite the variation within toxin classes, the similarity in overall venom biochemistry suggests that the selection pressure for the evolution of long glands served to increase venom yield in order to subjugate proportionally large anurans as a unique form of niche partitioning, and is not linked to significant changes in venom function. These results not only contribute to the body of venom evolution knowledge but also highlight the limited clinical management outcomes for Causus envenomations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco C P Coimbra
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Brett Hamilton
- Centre for Advanced Imaging & Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Paul Masci
- Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | | | - Lilin Ge
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Functional Substance of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 138 Xianlin Avenue, Qixia District, Nanjing 215400, China
| | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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34
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Nanobodies as novel therapeutic agents in envenomation. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2018; 1862:2955-2965. [PMID: 30309831 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An effective therapy against envenoming should be a priority in view of the high number scorpion stings and snakebites. Serum therapy is still widely applied to treat the envenomation victims; however this approach suffers from several shortcomings. The employment of monoclonal antibodies might be an outcome as these molecules are at the core of a variety of applications from protein structure determination to cancer treatment. The progress of activities in the twilight zone between genetic and antibody engineering have led to the development of a unique class of antibody fragments. These molecules possess several benefits and lack many possible disadvantages over classical antibodies. Within recombinant antibody formats, nanobodies or single domain antigen binding fragments derived from heavy chain only antibodies in camelids occupy a privileged position. SCOPE OF REVIEW In this paper we will briefly review the common methods of envenomation treatment and focus on details of various in vivo research activities that investigate the performance of recombinant, monoclonal nanobodies in venom neutralization. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Nanobodies bind to their cognate target with high specificity and affinity, they can be produced in large quantities from microbial expression systems and are very robust even when challenged with harsh environmental conditions. Upon administering, they rapidly distribute throughout the body and seem to be well tolerated in humans posing low immunogenicity. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Scorpion and snake envenomation is a major issue in developing countries and nanobodies as a venom-neutralizing agent can be considered as a valuable and promising candidate in envenomation therapy.
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35
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Purification, kinetic and functional characterization of membrane bound dipeptidyl peptidase-III from NCDC 252: a probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Mol Biol Rep 2018; 45:973-986. [PMID: 30039431 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-018-4245-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Pediococcus acidilactici is a probiotic lactic acid bacteria possessing studied in-vitro probiotic properties. Study of membrane proteins is crucial in developing technological and health applications of probiotic bacteria. Genome analysis of Pediococcus acidilactici revealed about more than 60 proteases/peptidases which need characterization. Dipeptidyl peptidase-III (DPP-III) is studied for first time in prokaryotes and it is a membrane protein in P. acidilactici that has been purified to apparent homogeneity. The enzyme was purified 81.66 fold with 36.75% yield. The specific activity of purified DPP-III was 202.67 U/mg. The protein moved as single band on native PAGE. The purity was also confirmed by in-situ gel assay. However SDS-PAGE analysis revealed it as high molecular weight heterotetramer with molecular weight of 108 kDa. The enzyme was maximally active at pH 8.5 and at 37 C. Purified DPP-III specifically hydrolyzed Arg-Arg-4-βNA with micromolar affinity (Km = 9.0 µM) and none of studied endopeptidase and monopeptidase substrate was hydrolyzed. Inhibition study revealed purified DPP-III to be a serine protease with involvement of metal ion at active site. The significance of this enzyme as membrane protein is yet to be studied.
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36
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Margres MJ, Wray KP, Hassinger ATB, Ward MJ, McGivern JJ, Moriarty Lemmon E, Lemmon AR, Rokyta DR. Quantity, Not Quality: Rapid Adaptation in a Polygenic Trait Proceeded Exclusively through Expression Differentiation. Mol Biol Evol 2018; 34:3099-3110. [PMID: 28962003 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msx231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A trait's genomic architecture can affect the rate and mechanism of adaptation, and although many ecologically-important traits are polygenic, most studies connecting genotype, phenotype, and fitness in natural populations have focused on traits with relatively simple genetic bases. To understand the genetic basis of polygenic adaptation, we must integrate genomics, phenotypic data, ecology, and fitness effects for a genetically tractable, polygenic trait; snake venoms provide such a system for studying polygenic adaptation because of their genetic tractability and vital ecological role in feeding and defense. We used a venom transcriptome-proteome map, quantitative proteomics, genomics, and fitness assays in sympatric prey to construct a genotype-phenotype-fitness map for the venoms of an island-mainland pair of rattlesnake populations. Reciprocal fitness experiments demonstrated that each population was locally adapted to sympatric prey. We identified significant expression differentiation with little to no coding-sequence variation across populations, demonstrating that expression differentiation was exclusively the genetic basis of polygenic adaptation. Previous research on the genetics of adaptation, however, has largely been biased toward investigating protein-coding regions because of the complexity of gene regulation. Our results showed that biases at the molecular level can be in the opposite direction, highlighting the need for more systematic comparisons of different molecular mechanisms underlying rapid, adaptive evolution in polygenic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Margres
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | - Kenneth P Wray
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | | | - Micaiah J Ward
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | - James J McGivern
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | | | - Alan R Lemmon
- Department of Scientific Computing, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
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37
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Kemparaju K, Girish KS, Katkar GD. Reply to 'Evidence that neutrophils do not promote Echis carinatus venom-induced tissue destruction'. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2303. [PMID: 29899327 PMCID: PMC5998087 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-04507-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kempaiah Kemparaju
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysuru, 570006, India.
| | - Kesturu S Girish
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysuru, 570006, India.
- Department of Studies and Research in Biochemistry, Tumkur University, Tumakuru, 572103, India.
| | - Gajanan D Katkar
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysuru, 570006, India
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 115, Taiwan
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38
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Phuong MA, Mahardika GN. Targeted Sequencing of Venom Genes from Cone Snail Genomes Improves Understanding of Conotoxin Molecular Evolution. Mol Biol Evol 2018; 35:1210-1224. [PMID: 29514313 PMCID: PMC5913681 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
To expand our capacity to discover venom sequences from the genomes of venomous organisms, we applied targeted sequencing techniques to selectively recover venom gene superfamilies and nontoxin loci from the genomes of 32 cone snail species (family, Conidae), a diverse group of marine gastropods that capture their prey using a cocktail of neurotoxic peptides (conotoxins). We were able to successfully recover conotoxin gene superfamilies across all species with high confidence (> 100× coverage) and used these data to provide new insights into conotoxin evolution. First, we found that conotoxin gene superfamilies are composed of one to six exons and are typically short in length (mean = ∼85 bp). Second, we expanded our understanding of the following genetic features of conotoxin evolution: 1) positive selection, where exons coding the mature toxin region were often three times more divergent than their adjacent noncoding regions, 2) expression regulation, with comparisons to transcriptome data showing that cone snails only express a fraction of the genes available in their genome (24-63%), and 3) extensive gene turnover, where Conidae species varied from 120 to 859 conotoxin gene copies. Finally, using comparative phylogenetic methods, we found that while diet specificity did not predict patterns of conotoxin evolution, dietary breadth was positively correlated with total conotoxin gene diversity. Overall, the targeted sequencing technique demonstrated here has the potential to radically increase the pace at which venom gene families are sequenced and studied, reshaping our ability to understand the impact of genetic changes on ecologically relevant phenotypes and subsequent diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Phuong
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Gusti N Mahardika
- Animal Biomedical and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University Bali, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia
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39
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A Review and Database of Snake Venom Proteomes. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9090290. [PMID: 28927001 PMCID: PMC5618223 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9090290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in the last decade combining transcriptomics with established proteomics methods have made possible rapid identification and quantification of protein families in snake venoms. Although over 100 studies have been published, the value of this information is increased when it is collated, allowing rapid assimilation and evaluation of evolutionary trends, geographical variation, and possible medical implications. This review brings together all compositional studies of snake venom proteomes published in the last decade. Compositional studies were identified for 132 snake species: 42 from 360 (12%) Elapidae (elapids), 20 from 101 (20%) Viperinae (true vipers), 65 from 239 (27%) Crotalinae (pit vipers), and five species of non-front-fanged snakes. Approximately 90% of their total venom composition consisted of eight protein families for elapids, 11 protein families for viperines and ten protein families for crotalines. There were four dominant protein families: phospholipase A2s (the most common across all front-fanged snakes), metalloproteases, serine proteases and three-finger toxins. There were six secondary protein families: cysteine-rich secretory proteins, l-amino acid oxidases, kunitz peptides, C-type lectins/snaclecs, disintegrins and natriuretic peptides. Elapid venoms contained mostly three-finger toxins and phospholipase A2s and viper venoms metalloproteases, phospholipase A2s and serine proteases. Although 63 protein families were identified, more than half were present in <5% of snake species studied and always in low abundance. The importance of these minor component proteins remains unknown.
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40
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Rogalski A, Soerensen C, Op den Brouw B, Lister C, Dashevsky D, Arbuckle K, Gloria A, Zdenek CN, Casewell NR, Gutiérrez JM, Wüster W, Ali SA, Masci P, Rowley P, Frank N, Fry BG. Differential procoagulant effects of saw-scaled viper (Serpentes: Viperidae: Echis) snake venoms on human plasma and the narrow taxonomic ranges of antivenom efficacies. Toxicol Lett 2017; 280:159-170. [PMID: 28847519 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Saw-scaled vipers (genus Echis) are one of the leading causes of snakebite morbidity and mortality in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and vast regions of Asia, constituting a public health burden exceeding that of almost any other snake genus globally. Venom-induced consumption coagulopathy, owing to the action of potent procoagulant toxins, is one of the most relevant clinical manifestations of envenomings by Echis spp. Clinical experience and prior studies examining a limited range of venoms and restricted antivenoms have demonstrated for some antivenoms an extreme lack of antivenom cross-reactivity between different species of this genus, sometimes resulting in catastrophic treatment failure. This study undertook the most comprehensive testing of Echis venom effects upon the coagulation of human plasma, and also the broadest examination of antivenom potency and cross-reactivity, to-date. 10 Echis species/populations and four antivenoms (two African, two Asian) were studied. The results indicate that the venoms are, in general, potently procoagulant but that the relative dependence on calcium or phospholipid cofactors is highly variable. Additionally, three out of the four antivenoms tested demonstrated only a very narrow taxonomic range of effectiveness in preventing coagulopathy, with only the SAIMR antivenom displaying significant levels of cross-reactivity. These results were in conflict with previous studies using prolonged preincubation of antivenom with venom to suggest effective cross-reactivity levels for the ICP Echi-Tab antivenom. These findings both inform upon potential clinical effects of envenomation in humans and highlight the extreme limitations of available treatment. It is hoped that this will spur efforts into the development of antivenoms with more comprehensive coverage for bites not only from wild snakes but also from specimens widely kept in zoological collections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aymeric Rogalski
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Christoffer Soerensen
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Callum Lister
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Alexandra Gloria
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory (MEFGL), School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK
| | - Syed A Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia; HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Paul Masci
- Princess Alexandra Hospital, Translational Research Institute, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Paul Rowley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK
| | | | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD 4072 Australia.
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41
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Ainsworth S, Petras D, Engmark M, Süssmuth RD, Whiteley G, Albulescu LO, Kazandjian TD, Wagstaff SC, Rowley P, Wüster W, Dorrestein PC, Arias AS, Gutiérrez JM, Harrison RA, Casewell NR, Calvete JJ. The medical threat of mamba envenoming in sub-Saharan Africa revealed by genus-wide analysis of venom composition, toxicity and antivenomics profiling of available antivenoms. J Proteomics 2017; 172:173-189. [PMID: 28843532 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mambas (genus Dendroaspis) are among the most feared of the medically important elapid snakes found in sub-Saharan Africa, but many facets of their biology, including the diversity of venom composition, remain relatively understudied. Here, we present a reconstruction of mamba phylogeny, alongside genus-wide venom gland transcriptomic and high-resolution top-down venomic analyses. Whereas the green mambas, D. viridis, D. angusticeps, D. j. jamesoni and D. j. kaimosae, express 3FTx-predominant venoms, black mamba (D. polylepis) venom is dominated by dendrotoxins I and K. The divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas makes it plausible that this major difference in venom composition is due to dietary variation. The pattern of intrageneric venom variability across Dendroaspis represented a valuable opportunity to investigate, in a genus-wide context, the variant toxicity of the venom, and the degree of paraspecific cross-reactivity between antivenoms and mamba venoms. To this end, the immunological profiles of the five mamba venoms were assessed against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview of which available antivenoms may be more efficacious in neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the notably different potency and pharmacological profiles of Dendroaspis venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will allow selection and design of toxin immunogens with a view to generating a safer and more efficacious pan-specific antivenom against any mamba envenomation. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE The mambas (genus Dendroaspis) comprise five especially notorious medically important venomous snakes endemic to sub-Saharan Africa. Their highly potent venoms comprise a high diversity of pharmacologically active peptides, including extremely rapid-acting neurotoxins. Previous studies on mamba venoms have focused on the biochemical and pharmacological characterisation of their most relevant toxins to rationalize the common neurological and neuromuscular symptoms of envenomings caused by these species, but there has been little work on overall venom composition or comparisons between them. Only very recently an overview of the composition of the venom of two Dendroaspis species, D. angusticeps and D. polylepis, has been unveiled through venomics approaches. Here we present the first genus-wide transcriptomic-proteomic analysis of mamba venom composition. The transcriptomic analyses described in this paper have contributed 29 (D. polylepis), 23 (D. angusticeps), 40 (D. viridis), 25 (D. j. jamesoni) and 21 (D. j. kaimosae), novel full-length toxin sequences to the non-redundant Dendroaspis sequence database. The mamba genus-wide venomic analysis demonstrated that major D. polylepis venom components are Kunitz-fold family toxins. This feature is unique in relation to the relatively conserved three-finger toxin (3FTx)-dominated venom compositions of the green mambas. Venom variation was interpreted in the context of dietary variation due to the divergent terrestrial ecology of D. polylepis compared to the arboreal niche occupied by all other mambas. Additionally, the degree of cross-reactivity conservation of mamba venoms was assessed by antivenomics against a panel of commercial antivenoms generated for the sub-Saharan Africa market. This study provides a genus-wide overview to infer which available antivenoms may be capable of neutralising human envenomings caused by mambas, irrespective of the species responsible. The information gathered in this study lays the foundations for rationalising the pharmacological profiles of mamba venoms at locus resolution. This understanding will contribute to the generation of a safer and more efficacious pan-Dendroaspis therapeutic antivenom against any mamba envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Ainsworth
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Petras
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17.Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mikael Engmark
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Bio and Health Informatics, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Straße des 17.Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Laura-Oana Albulescu
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Taline D Kazandjian
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Bioinformatics Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Rowley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, United Kingdom
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- University of California San Diego, Skaggs School of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9500 Gilman Dr, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Ana Silvia Arias
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - José M Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Jaume Roig 11, 46010, Valencia, Spain.
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Zancolli G, Sanz L, Calvete JJ, Wüster W. Venom On-a-Chip: A Fast and Efficient Method for Comparative Venomics. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9060179. [PMID: 28555029 PMCID: PMC5488029 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9060179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom research has attracted an increasing interest in disparate fields, from drug development and pharmacology, to evolutionary biology and ecology, and rational antivenom production. Advances in “-omics” technologies have allowed the characterization of an increasing number of animal venoms, but the methodology currently available is suboptimal for large-scale comparisons of venom profiles. Here, we describe a fast, reproducible and semi-automated protocol for investigating snake venom variability, especially at the intraspecific level, using the Agilent Bioanalyzer on-chip technology. Our protocol generated a phenotype matrix which can be used for robust statistical analysis and correlations of venom variation with ecological correlates, or other extrinsic factors. We also demonstrate the ease and utility of combining on-chip technology with previously fractionated venoms for detection of specific individual toxin proteins. Our study describes a novel strategy for rapid venom discrimination and analysis of compositional variation at multiple taxonomic levels, allowing researchers to tackle evolutionary questions and unveiling the drivers of the incredible biodiversity of venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zancolli
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
| | - Libia Sanz
- Venomics and Structural Proteomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, Valencia 46010, Spain.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Venomics and Structural Proteomics Laboratory, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, Valencia 46010, Spain.
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Lab, School of Biological Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK.
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Selection To Increase Expression, Not Sequence Diversity, Precedes Gene Family Origin and Expansion in Rattlesnake Venom. Genetics 2017; 206:1569-1580. [PMID: 28476866 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.117.202655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene duplication is the primary mechanism leading to new genes and phenotypic novelty, but the proximate evolutionary processes underlying gene family origin, maintenance, and expansion are poorly understood. Although sub- and neofunctionalization provide clear long-term advantages, selection does not act with foresight, and unless a redundant gene copy provides an immediate fitness advantage, the copy will most likely be lost. Many models for the evolution of genes immediately following duplication have been proposed, but the robustness and applicability of these models is unclear because of the lack of data at the population level. We used qPCR, protein expression data, genome sequencing, and hybrid enrichment to test three competing models that differ in whether selection favoring the spread of duplicates acts primarily on expression level or sequence diversity for specific toxin-encoding loci in the eastern diamondback rattlesnake (Crotalus adamanteus). We sampled 178 individuals and identified significant inter- and intrapopulation variation in copy number, demonstrated that copy number was significantly and positively correlated with protein expression, and found little to no sequence variation across paralogs in all populations. Collectively, these results demonstrate that selection for increased expression, not sequence diversity, was the proximate evolutionary process underlying gene family origin and expansion, providing data needed to resolve the debate over which evolutionary processes govern the fates of gene copies immediately following duplication.
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Tan KY, Tan CH, Chanhome L, Tan NH. Comparative venom gland transcriptomics of Naja kaouthia (monocled cobra) from Malaysia and Thailand: elucidating geographical venom variation and insights into sequence novelty. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3142. [PMID: 28392982 PMCID: PMC5384570 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) is a medically important venomous snake in Southeast Asia. Its venom has been shown to vary geographically in relation to venom composition and neurotoxic activity, indicating vast diversity of the toxin genes within the species. To investigate the polygenic trait of the venom and its locale-specific variation, we profiled and compared the venom gland transcriptomes of N. kaouthia from Malaysia (NK-M) and Thailand (NK-T) applying next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology. Methods The transcriptomes were sequenced on the Illumina HiSeq platform, assembled and followed by transcript clustering and annotations for gene expression and function. Pairwise or multiple sequence alignments were conducted on the toxin genes expressed. Substitution rates were studied for the major toxins co-expressed in NK-M and NK-T. Results and discussion The toxin transcripts showed high redundancy (41–82% of the total mRNA expression) and comprised 23 gene families expressed in NK-M and NK-T, respectively (22 gene families were co-expressed). Among the venom genes, three-finger toxins (3FTxs) predominated in the expression, with multiple sequences noted. Comparative analysis and selection study revealed that 3FTxs are genetically conserved between the geographical specimens whilst demonstrating distinct differential expression patterns, implying gene up-regulation for selected principal toxins, or alternatively, enhanced transcript degradation or lack of transcription of certain traits. One of the striking features that elucidates the inter-geographical venom variation is the up-regulation of α-neurotoxins (constitutes ∼80.0% of toxin’s fragments per kilobase of exon model per million mapped reads (FPKM)), particularly the long-chain α-elapitoxin-Nk2a (48.3%) in NK-T but only 1.7% was noted in NK-M. Instead, short neurotoxin isoforms were up-regulated in NK-M (46.4%). Another distinct transcriptional pattern observed is the exclusively and abundantly expressed cytotoxin CTX-3 in NK-T. The findings suggested correlation with the geographical variation in proteome and toxicity of the venom, and support the call for optimising antivenom production and use in the region. Besides, the current study uncovered full and partial sequences of numerous toxin genes from N. kaouthia which have not been reported hitherto; these include N. kaouthia-specific l-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), snake venom serine protease (SVSP), cystatin, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), hyaluronidase (HYA), waprin, phospholipase B (PLB), aminopeptidase (AP), neprilysin, etc. Taken together, the findings further enrich the snake toxin database and provide deeper insights into the genetic diversity of cobra venom toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia
| | - Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia
| | | | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia
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Boldrini-França J, Cologna CT, Pucca MB, Bordon KDCF, Amorim FG, Anjolette FAP, Cordeiro FA, Wiezel GA, Cerni FA, Pinheiro-Junior EL, Shibao PYT, Ferreira IG, de Oliveira IS, Cardoso IA, Arantes EC. Minor snake venom proteins: Structure, function and potential applications. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:824-838. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Inhibition of Snake Venom Metalloproteinase by β-Lactoglobulin Peptide from Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) Colostrum. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2017; 182:1415-1432. [PMID: 28155167 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-017-2407-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bioactive peptide research has experienced considerable therapeutic interest owing to varied physiological functions, efficacy in excretion, and tolerability of peptides. Colostrum is a rich natural source of bioactive peptides with many properties elucidated such as anti-thrombotic, anti-hypertensive, opioid, immunomodulatory, etc. In this study, a variant peptide derived from β-lactoglobulin from buffalo colostrum was evaluated for the anti-ophidian property by targeting snake venom metalloproteinases. These are responsible for rapid local tissue damages that develop after snakebite such as edema, hemorrhage, myonecrosis, and extracellular matrix degradation. The peptide identified by LC-MS/MS effectively neutralized hemorrhagic activity of the Echis carinatus venom in a dose-dependent manner. Histological examinations revealed that the peptide mitigated basement membrane degradation and accumulation of inflammatory leucocytes at the venom-injected site. Inhibition of proteolytic activity was evidenced in both casein and gelatin zymograms. Also, inhibition of fibrinolytic and fibrinogenolytic activities was seen. The UV-visible spectral study implicated Zn2+ chelation, which was further confirmed by molecular docking and dynamic studies by assessing molecular interactions, thus implicating the probable mechanism for inhibition of venom-induced proteolytic and hemorrhagic activities. The present investigation establishes newer vista for the BLG-col peptide with anti-ophidian efficacy as a promising candidate for therapeutic interventions.
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Geron M, Kumar R, Matzner H, Lahiani A, Gincberg G, Cohen G, Lazarovici P, Priel A. Protein toxins of the Echis coloratus viper venom directly activate TRPV1. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:615-623. [PMID: 28063984 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peptide and protein toxins are essential tools to dissect and probe the biology of their target receptors. Venoms target vital physiological processes to evoke pain. Snake venoms contain various factors with the ability to evoke, enhance and sustain pain sensation. While a number of venom-derived toxins were shown to directly target TRPV1 channels expressed on somatosensory nerve terminals to evoke pain response, such toxins were yet to be identified in snake venoms. METHODS We screened Echis coloratus saw-scaled viper venom's protein fractions isolated by reversed phase HPLC for their ability to activate TRPV1 channels. To this end, we employed heterologous systems to analyze TRPV1 and NGF pathways by imaging and electrophysiology, combined with molecular biology, biochemical, and pharmacological tools. RESULTS We identified TRPV1 activating proteins in the venom of Echis coloratus that produce a channel-dependent increase in intracellular calcium and outwardly rectifying currents in neurons and heterologous systems. Interestingly, channel activation was not mediated by any of its known toxin binding sites. Moreover, although NGF neurotropic activity was detected in this venom, TRPV1 activation was independent of NGF receptors. CONCLUSIONS Echis coloratus venom contains proteins with the ability to directly activate TRPV1. This activity is independent of the NGF pathway and is not mediated by known TRPV1 toxins' binding sites. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Our results could facilitate the discovery of new toxins targeting TRPV1 to enhance current understanding of this receptor activation mechanism. Furthermore, the findings of this study provide insight into the mechanism through which snakes' venom elicit pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matan Geron
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Rakesh Kumar
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Henry Matzner
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Adi Lahiani
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Galit Gincberg
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Gadi Cohen
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Philip Lazarovici
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Avi Priel
- Institute for Drug Research (IDR), School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
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García-Arredondo A, Rojas-Molina A, Ibarra-Alvarado C, Lazcano-Pérez F, Arreguín-Espinosa R, Sánchez-Rodríguez J. Composition and biological activities of the aqueous extracts of three scleractinian corals from the Mexican Caribbean: Pseudodiploria strigosa, Porites astreoides and Siderastrea siderea. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2016; 22:32. [PMID: 27904505 PMCID: PMC5121987 DOI: 10.1186/s40409-016-0087-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Scleractinian corals (stony corals) are the most abundant reef-forming cnidarians found in coral reefs throughout the world. Despite their abundance and ecological importance, information about the diversity of their toxins and their biological activities is very scarce. In this study, the chemical composition and the biological activities of the aqueous extracts of Pseudodiploria strigosa, Porites astreoides and Siderastrea siderea, three scleractinian corals from the Mexican Caribbean, have been assessed for the first time. METHODS Toxicity of the extracts was assessed in crickets; the presence of cytolysins was detected by the hemolysis assay; the vasoconstrictor activity was determined by the isolated rat aortic ring assay; the nociceptive activity was evaluated by the formalin test. The presence of phospholipases A2 (PLA2), serine proteases, and hyaluronidases was determined by enzymatic methods. Low-molecular-weight fractions were obtained by gel filtration chromatography and ultrafiltration. RESULTS Extracts from the three species were toxic to crickets, induced hemolysis in human and rat erythrocytes, produced vasoconstriction on isolated rat aortic rings, and presented phospholipase A2 and serine-protease activity. Despite the fact that these corals are not considered to be harmless to humans, the extracts generated significant nociceptive responses. The matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry analysis of the low-molecular-weight fractions revealed the presence of peptides within a mass range of 3000 to 6000 Da. These fractions were toxic to crickets and two of them induced a transitory vasoconstrictor effect on isolated rat aortic rings. CONCLUSION This study suggests that scleractinian corals produce low-molecular-weight peptides that are lethal to crickets and induce vasoconstriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro García-Arredondo
- Departamento de Investigación Química y Farmacológica de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, 76010 Mexico
| | - Alejandra Rojas-Molina
- Departamento de Investigación Química y Farmacológica de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, 76010 Mexico
| | - César Ibarra-Alvarado
- Departamento de Investigación Química y Farmacológica de Productos Naturales, Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, 76010 Mexico
| | - Fernando Lazcano-Pérez
- Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Campus Iztapalapa, Mexico City, 09340 Mexico ; Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 04510 Mexico
| | | | - Judith Sánchez-Rodríguez
- Unidad Académica de Sistemas Arrecifales, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo 77500 Mexico
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Evolutionary trajectories of snake genes and genomes revealed by comparative analyses of five-pacer viper. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13107. [PMID: 27708285 PMCID: PMC5059746 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakes have numerous features distinctive from other tetrapods and a rich history of genome evolution that is still obscure. Here, we report the high-quality genome of the five-pacer viper, Deinagkistrodon acutus, and comparative analyses with other representative snake and lizard genomes. We map the evolutionary trajectories of transposable elements (TEs), developmental genes and sex chromosomes onto the snake phylogeny. TEs exhibit dynamic lineage-specific expansion, and many viper TEs show brain-specific gene expression along with their nearby genes. We detect signatures of adaptive evolution in olfactory, venom and thermal-sensing genes and also functional degeneration of genes associated with vision and hearing. Lineage-specific relaxation of functional constraints on respective Hox and Tbx limb-patterning genes supports fossil evidence for a successive loss of forelimbs then hindlimbs during snake evolution. Finally, we infer that the ZW sex chromosome pair had undergone at least three recombination suppression events in the ancestor of advanced snakes. These results altogether forge a framework for our deep understanding into snakes' history of molecular evolution. Snakes have many characteristics that distinguish them from their relatives. Here, Yin et al. sequence the genome of the five-pacer viper, Deinagkistrodon acutus, and use comparative genomic analyses to elucidate the evolution of transposable elements, developmental genes and sex chromosomes in snakes.
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Campos PF, Andrade-Silva D, Zelanis A, Paes Leme AF, Rocha MMT, Menezes MC, Serrano SMT, Junqueira-de-Azevedo IDLM. Trends in the Evolution of Snake Toxins Underscored by an Integrative Omics Approach to Profile the Venom of the Colubrid Phalotris mertensi. Genome Biol Evol 2016; 8:2266-87. [PMID: 27412610 PMCID: PMC5010889 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evw149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Only few studies on snake venoms were dedicated to deeply characterize the toxin secretion of animals from the Colubridae family, despite the fact that they represent the majority of snake diversity. As a consequence, some evolutionary trends observed in venom proteins that underpinned the evolutionary histories of snake toxins were based on data from a minor parcel of the clade. Here, we investigated the proteins of the totally unknown venom from Phalotris mertensi (Dipsadinae subfamily), in order to obtain a detailed profile of its toxins and to appreciate evolutionary tendencies occurring in colubrid venoms. By means of integrated omics and functional approaches, including RNAseq, Sanger sequencing, high-resolution proteomics, recombinant protein production, and enzymatic tests, we verified an active toxic secretion containing up to 21 types of proteins. A high content of Kunitz-type proteins and C-type lectins were observed, although several enzymatic components such as metalloproteinases and an L-amino acid oxidase were also present in the venom. Interestingly, an arguable venom component of other species was demonstrated as a true venom protein and named svLIPA (snake venom acid lipase). This finding indicates the importance of checking the actual protein occurrence across species before rejecting genes suggested to code for toxins, which are relevant for the discussion about the early evolution of reptile venoms. Moreover, trends in the evolution of some toxin classes, such as simplification of metalloproteinases and rearrangements of Kunitz and Wap domains, parallel similar phenomena observed in other venomous snake families and provide a broader picture of toxin evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pollyanna Fernandes Campos
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Débora Andrade-Silva
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - André Zelanis
- Departamento de Ciência E Tecnologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São José Dos Campos, Brazil
| | | | | | - Milene Cristina Menezes
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Solange M T Serrano
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
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