1
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Morita H, Kodama Y. Quantitative analysis of trichocysts in Paramecium bursaria following artificial removal and infection with the symbiotic Chlorella variabilis. Eur J Protistol 2024; 95:126115. [PMID: 39216315 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2024.126115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Revised: 08/14/2024] [Accepted: 08/17/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The ciliate Paramecium bursaria possesses cell organelles called trichocysts that have defensive functions. Paramecium bursaria is capable of symbiosis with Chlorella variabilis, and the symbiotic algae are situated in close proximity to the trichocysts. To clarify the relationship between trichocysts in P. bursaria and the presence or absence of the intracellular symbiotic C. variabilis, this study compared the regeneration capacity of trichocysts in alga-free and algae-bearing P. bursaria. In addition, trichocyst protein abundance was measured when alga-free P. bursaria specimens were artificially infected with Chlorella. After completely removing trichocysts from P. bursaria cells by treatment with lysozyme and observing them after 24 h, the percentage of regenerating trichocysts in the entire cell was significantly higher in alga-free cells than that in algae-bearing cells. We also developed a simple method for the isolation of high-purity trichocysts to quantify trichocyst protein amounts. There was a significant difference in the trichocyst protein abundance of P. bursaria before and one week after mixing with Chlorella (i.e., after the establishment of symbiosis with algae). This study shows the importance of trichocysts in alga-free P. bursaria as well as their competition with symbiotic C. variabilis for attachment sites during the algal infection process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hikaru Morita
- Major in Agricultural and Life Sciences, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Shimane University, Matsue-shi, Japan
| | - Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue-shi, Japan.
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2
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Quevarec L, Brasseur G, Aragnol D, Robaglia C. Tracking the early events of photosymbiosis evolution. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 29:406-412. [PMID: 38016867 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2023.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023]
Abstract
Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved in cyanobacteria around 3.2 giga-annum (Ga) ago and was acquired by eukaryotes starting around 1.8 Ga ago by endosymbiosis. Photosymbiosis results either from integration of a photosynthetic bacteria by heterotrophic eukaryotes (primary photosymbiosis) or by successive integration of photosymbiotic eukaryotes by heterotrophic eukaryotes (secondary photosymbiosis). Primary endosymbiosis is thought to have been a rare event, whereas secondary and higher-order photosymbiosis evolved multiple times independently in different taxa. Despite its recurrent evolution, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying photosymbiosis are unknown. In this opinion, we discuss the primary events leading to the establishment of photosymbiosis, and we present recent research suggesting that, in some cases, domestication occurred instead of symbiosis, and how oxygen and host immunity can be involved in symbiont maintenance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Quevarec
- Aix Marseille Université, CEA, CNRS, BIAM, Luminy Génétique et Biophysique des Plantes, 13009 Marseille, France; Laboratoire de Chimie Bactérienne, IMM, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, 13402 Marseille, France
| | - Gaël Brasseur
- Laboratoire de Chimie Bactérienne, IMM, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, 13402 Marseille, France
| | - Denise Aragnol
- Aix Marseille Université, CEA, CNRS, BIAM, Luminy Génétique et Biophysique des Plantes, 13009 Marseille, France
| | - Christophe Robaglia
- Aix Marseille Université, CEA, CNRS, BIAM, Luminy Génétique et Biophysique des Plantes, 13009 Marseille, France.
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3
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Jenkins BH. Mutualism on the edge: Understanding the Paramecium-Chlorella symbiosis. PLoS Biol 2024; 22:e3002563. [PMID: 38573881 PMCID: PMC10994274 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Exploring the mechanisms that underpin symbiosis requires an understanding of how these complex interactions are maintained in diverse model systems. The ciliate protist, Paramecium bursaria, offers a valuable insight into how emergent endosymbiotic interactions have evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin H. Jenkins
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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4
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Song Q, Zhao F, Hou L, Miao M. Cellular interactions and evolutionary origins of endosymbiotic relationships with ciliates. THE ISME JOURNAL 2024; 18:wrae117. [PMID: 38916437 PMCID: PMC11253213 DOI: 10.1093/ismejo/wrae117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 05/26/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/26/2024]
Abstract
As unicellular predators, ciliates engage in close associations with diverse microbes, laying the foundation for the establishment of endosymbiosis. Originally heterotrophic, ciliates demonstrate the ability to acquire phototrophy by phagocytizing unicellular algae or by sequestering algal plastids. This adaptation enables them to gain photosynthate and develop resistance to unfavorable environmental conditions. The integration of acquired phototrophy with intrinsic phagotrophy results in a trophic mode known as mixotrophy. Additionally, ciliates can harbor thousands of bacteria in various intracellular regions, including the cytoplasm and nucleus, exhibiting species specificity. Under prolonged and specific selective pressure within hosts, bacterial endosymbionts evolve unique lifestyles and undergo particular reductions in metabolic activities. Investigating the research advancements in various endosymbiotic cases within ciliates will contribute to elucidate patterns in cellular interaction and unravel the evolutionary origins of complex traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Song
- Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 1 Yanqihu East Road, Huairou District, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Fangqing Zhao
- Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 1 Yanqihu East Road, Huairou District, Beijing 100049, China
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1 Beichen West Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Health Science of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Science, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 1 Xiangshan Road, Hangzhou 310024, China
| | - Lina Hou
- Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 1 Yanqihu East Road, Huairou District, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Miao Miao
- Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 1 Yanqihu East Road, Huairou District, Beijing 100049, China
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5
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Long H, Johri P, Gout JF, Ni J, Hao Y, Licknack T, Wang Y, Pan J, Jiménez-Marín B, Lynch M. Paramecium Genetics, Genomics, and Evolution. Annu Rev Genet 2023; 57:391-410. [PMID: 38012024 PMCID: PMC11334263 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-071819-104035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
The ciliate genus Paramecium served as one of the first model systems in microbial eukaryotic genetics, contributing much to the early understanding of phenomena as diverse as genome rearrangement, cryptic speciation, cytoplasmic inheritance, and endosymbiosis, as well as more recently to the evolution of mating types, introns, and roles of small RNAs in DNA processing. Substantial progress has recently been made in the area of comparative and population genomics. Paramecium species combine some of the lowest known mutation rates with some of the largest known effective populations, along with likely very high recombination rates, thereby harboring a population-genetic environment that promotes an exceptionally efficient capacity for selection. As a consequence, the genomes are extraordinarily streamlined, with very small intergenic regions combined with small numbers of tiny introns. The subject of the bulk of Paramecium research, the ancient Paramecium aurelia species complex, is descended from two whole-genome duplication events that retain high degrees of synteny, thereby providing an exceptional platform for studying the fates of duplicate genes. Despite having a common ancestor dating to several hundred million years ago, the known descendant species are morphologically indistinguishable, raising significant questions about the common view that gene duplications lead to the origins of evolutionary novelties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongan Long
- Institute of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China;
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Laoshan Laboratory, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China
| | - Parul Johri
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jean-Francois Gout
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Starkville, Mississippi, USA
| | - Jiahao Ni
- Institute of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China;
| | - Yue Hao
- Cancer and Cell Biology Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA;
| | - Timothy Licknack
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA;
| | - Yaohai Wang
- Institute of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China;
| | - Jiao Pan
- Institute of Evolution and Marine Biodiversity, KLMME, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, Shandong Province, China;
| | - Berenice Jiménez-Marín
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA;
| | - Michael Lynch
- Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA;
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6
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Esmael A, Agarkova IV, Dunigan DD, Zhou Y, Van Etten JL. Viral DNA Accumulation Regulates Replication Efficiency of Chlorovirus OSy-NE5 in Two Closely Related Chlorella variabilis Strains. Viruses 2023; 15:1341. [PMID: 37376640 DOI: 10.3390/v15061341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Many chloroviruses replicate in Chlorella variabilis algal strains that are ex-endosymbionts isolated from the protozoan Paramecium bursaria, including the NC64A and Syngen 2-3 strains. We noticed that indigenous water samples produced a higher number of plaque-forming viruses on C. variabilis Syngen 2-3 lawns than on C. variabilis NC64A lawns. These observed differences led to the discovery of viruses that replicate exclusively in Syngen 2-3 cells, named Only Syngen (OSy) viruses. Here, we demonstrate that OSy viruses initiate infection in the restricted host NC64A by synthesizing some early virus gene products and that approximately 20% of the cells produce a small number of empty virus capsids. However, the infected cells did not produce infectious viruses because the cells were unable to replicate the viral genome. This is interesting because all previous attempts to isolate host cells resistant to chlorovirus infection were due to changes in the host receptor for the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Esmael
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Benha 13518, Egypt
| | - Irina V Agarkova
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - David D Dunigan
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - You Zhou
- Center for Biotechnology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - James L Van Etten
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
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7
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Paramecium bursaria as a Potential Tool for Evaluation of Microplastics Toxicity. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11121852. [PMID: 36552361 PMCID: PMC9775370 DOI: 10.3390/biology11121852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) are normally defined as small plastic wastes with a size of 1 μm to 5 mm in diameter. This tiny plastic debris is abundant in aquatic systems and poses a great threat to aquatic biota. To date, toxicological assessment of MPs is predominantly dependent on metazoan animals, although their applications are sometimes limited due to the high cost, narrow ecological niche, or ethical considerations. In this regard, unicellular eukaryotes (i.e., protozoa) that are ubiquitously present in nature represent a promising alternative for evaluating the toxicity of MPs. In this study, we selected Paramecium bursaria (P. bursaria) as a representative of protozoa and further investigated behavioral and molecular changes in MPs-exposed P. bursaria. Our results showed that following MPs uptake, P. bursaria exhibited various changes, including anomalies in swimming patterns, reduction in moving speed, impairment of avoidance behavior, elevation of oxidative stress, and potential disturbance of endosymbiosis. These elicited changes in P. bursaria in response to MPs exposure were pronounced and measurable. Overall, this study demonstrated that P. bursaria could serve as a promising alternative for the toxicological assessment of MPs and may be further applied to evaluate the toxicity of other environmental contaminants.
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8
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Spanner C, Darienko T, Filker S, Sonntag B, Pröschold T. Morphological diversity and molecular phylogeny of five Paramecium bursaria (Alveolata, Ciliophora, Oligohymenophorea) syngens and the identification of their green algal endosymbionts. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18089. [PMID: 36302793 PMCID: PMC9613978 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-22284-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramecium bursaria is a mixotrophic ciliate species, which is common in stagnant and slow-flowing, nutrient-rich waters. It is usually found living in symbiosis with zoochlorellae (green algae) of the genera Chlorella or Micractinium. We investigated P. bursaria isolates from around the world, some of which have already been extensively studied in various laboratories, but whose morphological and genetic identity has not yet been completely clarified. Phylogenetic analyses of the SSU and ITS rDNA sequences revealed five highly supported lineages, which corresponded to the syngen and most likely to the biological species assignment. These syngens R1-R5 could also be distinguished by unique synapomorphies in the secondary structures of the SSU and the ITS. Considering these synapomorphies, we could clearly assign the existing GenBank entries of P. bursaria to specific syngens. In addition, we discovered synapomorphies at amino acids of the COI gene for the identification of the syngens. Using the metadata of these entries, most syngens showed a worldwide distribution, however, the syngens R1 and R5 were only found in Europe. From morphology, the syngens did not show any significant deviations. The investigated strains had either Chlorella variabilis, Chlorella vulgaris or Micractinium conductrix as endosymbionts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Spanner
- Research Department for Limnology, Mondsee, University of Innsbruck, Mondsee, Austria
| | - Tatyana Darienko
- Research Department for Limnology, Mondsee, University of Innsbruck, Mondsee, Austria
- Institute of Microbiology and Genetics, Department of Applied Bioinformatics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sabine Filker
- Molecular Ecology Group, Technische Universität Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Bettina Sonntag
- Research Department for Limnology, Mondsee, University of Innsbruck, Mondsee, Austria
| | - Thomas Pröschold
- Research Department for Limnology, Mondsee, University of Innsbruck, Mondsee, Austria.
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Miyokawa R, Hanada M, Togawa Y, Itoh TQ, Kobayakawa Y, Kusumi J. Symbiont specificity differs among green hydra strains. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:220789. [PMID: 36312570 PMCID: PMC9554523 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.220789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The symbiotic hydra Hydra viridissima has a stable symbiotic relationship with the green alga Chlorella. This hydra appears to cospeciate with the symbiotic alga, and some strains are known to have strain-specific host/symbiont combinations. To investigate the mechanism of the specificity between host and symbiont, we explored the effect of the removal or exchange of symbionts in two distantly related H. viridissima strains (K10 and M9). In the K10 strain, severe morphological and behavioural changes were found in symbiont-removed and symbiont-exchanged polyps. Interestingly, both polyps showed a similar gene expression pattern. The gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that the removal or exchange of symbionts caused the downregulation of genes involved in the electron transport chain and the upregulation of genes involved in translation in the K10 strain. On the other hand, symbiont-removed and symbiont-exchanged M9 polyps showed modest changes in their morphology and behaviour compared with the K10 strain. Furthermore, the patterns of the gene expression changes in the M9 strain were quite different between the symbiont-removed and symbiont-exchanged polyps. Our results suggested that the regulation of energy balance is one of the crucial mechanisms for maintaining symbiotic relationships in green hydra, and this mechanism differs between the strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Miyokawa
- Graduate School of Integrated Science for Global Society, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Maki Hanada
- Graduate School of Systems Life Science, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yumiko Togawa
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1, Ten-noudai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8572, Japan
| | - Taichi Q. Itoh
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Kobayakawa
- Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
| | - Junko Kusumi
- Department of Environmental Changes, Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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10
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Endosymbiotic Chlorella variabilis reduces mitochondrial number in the ciliate Paramecium bursaria. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8216. [PMID: 35637201 PMCID: PMC9151773 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12496-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Extant symbioses illustrate endosymbiosis is a driving force for evolution and diversification. In the ciliate Paramecium bursaria, the endosymbiotic alga Chlorella variabilis in perialgal vacuole localizes beneath the host cell cortex by adhesion between the perialgal vacuole membrane and host mitochondria. We investigated whether host mitochondria are also affected by algal endosymbiosis. Transmission electron microscopy of host cells showed fewer mitochondria beneath the algae-bearing host cell cortex than that of alga-free cells. To compare the density and distribution of host mitochondria with or without symbiotic algae, we developed a monoclonal antibody against Paramecium mitochondria. Immunofluorescence microscopy with the monoclonal antibody showed that the mitochondrial density of the algae-bearing P. bursaria was significantly lower than that of the alga-free cells. The total cell protein concentration of alga-free P. bursaria cells was approximately 1.8-fold higher than that of algae-bearing cells, and the protein content of mitochondria was significantly higher in alga-free cells than that in the algae-bearing cells. These results corresponded with those obtained by transmission electron and immunofluorescence microscopies. This paper shows that endosymbiotic algae affect reduced mitochondrial number in the host P. bursaria significantly.
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11
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Matsumoto S, Watanabe K, Kiyota H, Tachibana M, Shimizu T, Watarai M. Distinction of Paramecium strains by a combination method of RAPD analysis and multiplex PCR. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265139. [PMID: 35275953 PMCID: PMC8916638 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramecium is employed as a valuable model organism in various research fields since a large number of strains with different characteristics of size, morphology, degree of aging, and type of conjugation can be obtained. It is necessary to determine a method for the classification and simple identification of strains to increase their utility as a research tool. This study attempted to establish a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based method to differentiate strains of the same species. Genomic DNA was purified from several strains of P. caudatum, P. tetraurelia, and P. bursaria used for comparison by the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-PCR method. In P. tetraurelia and P. bursaria, it was sufficiently possible to distinguish specific strains depending on the pattern of random primers and amplification characteristics. For the classification of P. caudatum, based on the sequence data obtained by RAPD-PCR analysis, 5 specific primer sets were designed and a multiplex PCR method was developed. The comparative analysis of 2 standard strains, 12 recommended strains, and 12 other strains of P. caudatum provided by the National BioResource Project was conducted, and specific strains were identified. This multiplex PCR method would be an effective tool for the simple identification of environmental isolates or the management of Paramecium strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonoko Matsumoto
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Kenta Watanabe
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Hiroko Kiyota
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Masato Tachibana
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, National BioResource Project Paramecium, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Takashi Shimizu
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Masahisa Watarai
- Joint Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
- Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
- * E-mail:
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12
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Tan B, Wang Y, Gong Z, Fan X, Ni B. Toxic Effects of Copper Nanoparticles on Paramecium bursaria–Chlorella Symbiotic System. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:834208. [PMID: 35401497 PMCID: PMC8984179 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.834208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although many reports have demonstrated that nanoparticles can have a negative effect on aquatic organisms, the toxic effects on symbiotic organisms remain poorly understood. The present study conducts ultrastructure, enzyme activity, and transcriptomics to assess the toxic effects to the Paramecium bursaria–Chlorella symbiotic system from exposure to copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) for 24 h. We found that in both the host and symbiotic algae, CuNP exposure induced high reactive oxygen species level, which leads to oxidative damage and energy metabolism disorder. Moreover, transmission electron micrographs (TEMs) showed that the symbiotic algae in the cytoplasm of P. bursaria were enveloped in the digestive vacuole and digested, and the level of acid phosphatase activity increased significantly within 24 h, which indicated that the stability of the symbiotic system was affected after CuNP exposure. We speculated that the increased energy demand in the host and symbiotic algae resulted from oxidative stress, precipitating the decrease of the photosynthetic products provided to the host, the digestion of the symbiont, and the destruction of the stable symbiotic relationship. The study provides the first insight into the mechanisms of nanoparticles’ toxicity to the symbiotic relationship in the ecosystem, which may help to understand the environmental effects and toxicological mechanisms of nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bingyu Tan
- School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiwen Wang
- School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhiwei Gong
- School of Physics and Electronic Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinpeng Fan
- School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bing Ni
- School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Bing Ni,
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13
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Weiner AKM, Cullison B, Date SV, Tyml T, Volland JM, Woyke T, Katz LA, Sleith RS. Examining the Relationship Between the Testate Amoeba Hyalosphenia papilio (Arcellinida, Amoebozoa) and its Associated Intracellular Microalgae Using Molecular and Microscopic Methods. Protist 2022; 173:125853. [PMID: 35030517 PMCID: PMC9148389 DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2021.125853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Symbiotic relationships between heterotrophic and phototrophic partners are common in microbial eukaryotes. Among Arcellinida (Amoebozoa) several species are associated with microalgae of the genus Chlorella (Archaeplastida). So far, these symbioses were assumed to be stable and mutualistic, yet details of the interactions are limited. Here, we analyzed 22 single-cell transcriptomes and 36 partially-sequenced genomes of the Arcellinida morphospecies Hyalosphenia papilio, which contains Chlorella algae, to shed light on the amoeba-algae association. By characterizing the genetic diversity of associated Chlorella, we detected two distinct clades that can be linked to host genetic diversity, yet at the same time show a biogeographic signal across sampling sites. Fluorescence and transmission electron microscopy showed the presence of intact algae cells within the amoeba cell. Yet analysis of transcriptome data suggested that the algal nuclei are inactive, implying that instead of a stable, mutualistic relationship, the algae may be temporarily exploited for photosynthetic activity before being digested. Differences in gene expression of H. papilio and Hyalosphenia elegans demonstrated increased expression of genes related to oxidative stress. Together, our analyses increase knowledge of this host-symbiont association and reveal 1) higher diversity of associated algae than previously characterized, 2) a transient association between H. papilio and Chlorella with unclear benefits for the algae, 3) algal-induced gene expression changes in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnes K M Weiner
- Smith College, Department of Biological Sciences, Northampton, Massachusetts, USA; NORCE Climate and Environment, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Jahnebakken 5, 5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Billie Cullison
- Smith College, Department of Biological Sciences, Northampton, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Shailesh V Date
- Laboratory for Research in Complex Systems, Menlo Park, California, USA
| | - Tomáš Tyml
- Laboratory for Research in Complex Systems, Menlo Park, California, USA; DOE Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Jean-Marie Volland
- Laboratory for Research in Complex Systems, Menlo Park, California, USA; DOE Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Tanja Woyke
- DOE Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Laura A Katz
- Smith College, Department of Biological Sciences, Northampton, Massachusetts, USA; University of Massachusetts Amherst, Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robin S Sleith
- Smith College, Department of Biological Sciences, Northampton, Massachusetts, USA.
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14
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Flemming FE, Grosser K, Schrallhammer M. Natural Shifts in Endosymbionts' Occurrence and Relative Frequency in Their Ciliate Host Population. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:791615. [PMID: 35087493 PMCID: PMC8787144 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.791615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of bacterial endosymbionts harbored by heterotrophic Paramecium species is complex. Obligate intracellular bacteria supposedly always inflict costs as the host is the only possible provider of resources. However, several experimental studies have shown that paramecia carrying bacterial endosymbionts can benefit from their infection. Here, we address the question which endosymbionts occur in natural paramecia populations isolated from a small lake over a period of 5 years and which factors might explain observed shifts and persistence in the symbionts occurrence. One hundred and nineteen monoclonal strains were investigated and approximately two-third harbored intracellular bacteria. The majority of infected paramecia carried the obligate endosymbiotic "Candidatus Megaira polyxenophila", followed by Caedimonas varicaedens, and Holospora undulata. The latter was only detected in a single strain. While "Ca. M. polyxenophila" was observed in seven out of 13 samplings, C. varicaedens presence was limited to a single sampling occasion. After the appearance of C. varicaedens, "Ca. M. polyxenophila" prevalence dramatically dropped with some delay but recovered to original levels at the end of our study. Potential mechanisms explaining these observations include differences in infectivity, host range, and impact on host fitness as well as host competitive capacities. Growth experiments revealed fitness advantages for infected paramecia harboring "Ca. M. polyxenophila" as well as C. varicaedens. Furthermore, we showed that cells carrying C. varicaedens gain a competitive advantage from the symbiosis-derived killer trait. Other characteristics like infectivity and overlapping host range were taken into consideration, but the observed temporal persistence of "Ca. M. polyxenophila" is most likely explained by the positive effect this symbiont provides to its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicitas E. Flemming
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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15
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Kodama Y, Sumita H. The ciliate Paramecium bursaria allows budding of symbiotic Chlorella variabilis cells singly from the digestive vacuole membrane into the cytoplasm during algal reinfection. PROTOPLASMA 2022; 259:117-125. [PMID: 33881616 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-021-01645-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The ciliate Paramecium bursaria harbors several hundred symbiotic Chlorella spp. cells in the cytoplasm. Algal re-endosymbiosis can be artificially induced using alga-removed P. bursaria. During algal re-endosymbiosis, algae ingested into the host digestive vacuoles (DVs) avoid digestion by the host lysosomal enzymes and then escape into the cytoplasm by budding off of the DV membrane. The budded alga-enclosing DV membrane then differentiates into the symbiosome or perialgal vacuole (PV) membrane and is localized beneath the host cell cortex. In this study, we determined whether the PV membrane has the ability to recognize the symbiotic alga singly by eliminating other small microspheres in the same DV. To clarify the accuracy of the budding process, we mixed fluorescent-labeled microspheres of diameter 0.20 µm with isolated symbiotic algae during algal re-endosymbiosis. No fluorescence was observed from the PV membrane, as expected, and the budding DVs that enclosed both undigested and digested algae. Additionally, the algal re-endosymbiosis rate was significantly reduced in the presence of microspheres. These observations showed that the host P. bursaria allowed budding of the algae singly from the membranes of DVs without microspheres and this process required close contact between the DV membrane and the algal cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane, Japan.
| | - Haruka Sumita
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane, Japan
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16
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Speciale I, Di Lorenzo F, Notaro A, Noel E, Agarkova I, Molinaro A, Van Etten JL, De Castro C. N-glycans from Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus MA-1D: Re-evaluation of the oligosaccharide common core structure. Glycobiology 2021; 32:260-273. [DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwab113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus MA-1D is a chlorovirus that infects Chlorella variabilis strain NC64A, a symbiont of the protozoan Paramecium bursaria. MA-1D has a 339-kb genome encoding ca. 366 proteins and 11 tRNAs. Like other chloroviruses, its major capsid protein (MCP) is decorated with N-glycans, whose structures have been solved in this work by using nuclear magnetic (NMR) spectroscopy and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry along with MS/MS experiments. This analysis identified three N-linked oligosaccharides that differ in the non-stoichiometric presence of three monosaccharides, with the largest oligosaccharide composed of eight residues organized in a highly branched fashion. The N-glycans described here share several features with those of the other chloroviruses except that they lack a distal xylose unit that was believed to be part of a conserved core region for all the chloroviruses. Examination of the MA-1D genome detected a gene with strong homology to the putative xylosyltransferase in the reference chlorovirus PBCV-1 and in virus NY-2A, albeit mutated with a premature stop codon. This discovery means that we need to reconsider the essential features of the common core glycan region in the chloroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Immacolata Speciale
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Flaviana Di Lorenzo
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Anna Notaro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055, Portici, Italy
| | - Eric Noel
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0900, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0118, USA
- Innovative Genomics Institute, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Irina Agarkova
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0900, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0722, USA
| | - Antonio Molinaro
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Cintia 26, 80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - James L Van Etten
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0900, USA
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, 68583-0722, USA
| | - Cristina De Castro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli Federico II, Via Università 100, 80055, Portici, Italy
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17
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Geraghty S, Koutsouveli V, Hall C, Chang L, Sacristan-Soriano O, Hill M, Riesgo A, Hill A. Establishment of Host-Algal Endosymbioses: Genetic Response to Symbiont Versus Prey in a Sponge Host. Genome Biol Evol 2021; 13:6427630. [PMID: 34791195 PMCID: PMC8633732 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evab252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The freshwater sponge Ephydatia muelleri and its Chlorella-like algal partner is an emerging model for studying animal: algal endosymbiosis. The sponge host is a tractable laboratory organism, and the symbiotic algae are easily cultured. We took advantage of these traits to interrogate questions about mechanisms that govern the establishment of durable intracellular partnerships between hosts and symbionts in facultative symbioses. We modified a classical experimental approach to discern the phagocytotic mechanisms that might be co-opted to permit persistent infections, and identified genes differentially expressed in sponges early in the establishment of endosymbiosis. We exposed algal-free E. muelleri to live native algal symbionts and potential food items (bacteria and native heat-killed algae), and performed RNA-Seq to compare patterns of gene expression among treatments. We found a relatively small but interesting suite of genes that are differentially expressed in the host exposed to live algal symbionts, and a larger number of genes triggered by host exposure to heat-killed algae. The upregulated genes in sponges exposed to live algal symbionts were mostly involved in endocytosis, ion transport, metabolic processes, vesicle-mediated transport, and oxidation–reduction. One of the host genes, an ATP-Binding Cassette transporter that is downregulated in response to live algal symbionts, was further evaluated for its possible role in the establishment of the symbiosis. We discuss the gene expression profiles associated with host responses to living algal cells in the context of conditions necessary for long-term residency within host cells by phototrophic symbionts as well as the genetic responses to sponge phagocytosis and immune-driven pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Geraghty
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Vasiliki Koutsouveli
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Marine Ecology, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Chelsea Hall
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Lillian Chang
- Department of Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, USA
| | - Oriol Sacristan-Soriano
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Blanes (CEAB, CSIC), Blanes, Spain
| | - Malcolm Hill
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, USA
| | - Ana Riesgo
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, National Museum of Natural Sciences, Madrid, Spain
| | - April Hill
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, USA
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18
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Catalysis of Chlorovirus Production by the Foraging of Bursaria truncatella on Paramecia bursaria Containing Endosymbiotic Algae. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9102170. [PMID: 34683491 PMCID: PMC8540807 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses are large viruses that replicate in chlorella-like green algae and normally exist as mutualistic endosymbionts (referred to as zoochlorellae) in protists such as Paramecium bursaria. Chlorovirus populations rise and fall in indigenous waters through time; however, the factors involved in these virus fluctuations are still under investigation. Chloroviruses attach to the surface of P. bursaria but cannot infect their zoochlorellae hosts because the viruses cannot reach the zoochlorellae as long as they are in the symbiotic phase. Predators of P. bursaria, such as copepods and didinia, can bring chloroviruses into contact with zoochlorellae by disrupting the paramecia, which results in an increase in virus titers in microcosm experiments. Here, we report that another predator of P. bursaria, Bursaria truncatella, can also increase chlorovirus titers. After two days of foraging on P. bursaria, B. truncatella increased infectious chlorovirus abundance about 20 times above the controls. Shorter term foraging (3 h) resulted in a small increase of chlorovirus titers over the controls and more foraging generated more chloroviruses. Considering that B. truncatella does not release viable zoochlorellae either during foraging or through fecal pellets, where zoochlorellae could be infected by chlorovirus, we suggest a third pathway of predator virus catalysis. By engulfing the entire protist and digesting it slowly, virus replication can occur within the predator and some of the virus is passed out through a waste vacuole. These results provide additional support for the hypothesis that predators of P. bursaria are important drivers of chlorovirus population sizes and dynamics.
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19
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Alacid E, Richards TA. A cell-cell atlas approach for understanding symbiotic interactions between microbes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 64:47-59. [PMID: 34655935 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Natural environments are composed of a huge diversity of microorganisms interacting with each other to form complex functional networks. Our understanding of the operative nature of host-symbiont associations is limited because propagating such associations in a laboratory is challenging. The advent of single-cell technologies applied to, for example, animal cells and apicomplexan parasites has revolutionized our understanding of development and disease. Such cell atlas approaches generate maps of cell-specific processes and variations within cellular populations. These methods can now be combined with cellular-imaging so that interaction stage versus transcriptome state can be quantized for microbe-microbe interactions. We predict that the combination of these methods applied to the study of symbioses will transform our understanding of many ecological interactions, including those sampled directly from natural environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabet Alacid
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK.
| | - Thomas A Richards
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK.
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20
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Emergent RNA-RNA interactions can promote stability in a facultative phototrophic endosymbiosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2108874118. [PMID: 34521754 PMCID: PMC8463893 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2108874118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Stable endosymbiosis between eukaryotic microbes has driven the evolution of further cellular complexity. Yet the mechanisms that can act to stabilize an emergent eukaryote–eukaryote endosymbiosis are unclear. Using the model facultative endosymbiotic system, Paramecium bursaria, we demonstrate that endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions can drive a cost to host growth upon endosymbiont digestion. These RNA–RNA interactions are facilitated by the host RNA-interference system. For endosymbiont messenger RNA sharing a high level of sequence identity with host transcripts, this process can result in host gene knockdown. We propose that these endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions—“RNA-interference collisions”—represent an emergent mechanism to sanction the host for breakdown of the endosymbiosis, promoting the stability of the facultative endosymbiotic interaction. Eukaryote–eukaryote endosymbiosis was responsible for the spread of chloroplast (plastid) organelles. Stability is required for the metabolic and genetic integration that drives the establishment of new organelles, yet the mechanisms that act to stabilize emergent endosymbioses—between two fundamentally selfish biological organisms—are unclear. Theory suggests that enforcement mechanisms, which punish misbehavior, may act to stabilize such interactions by resolving conflict. However, how such mechanisms can emerge in a facultative endosymbiosis has yet to be explored. Here, we propose that endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions, arising from digestion of the endosymbiont population, can result in a cost to host growth for breakdown of the endosymbiosis. Using the model facultative endosymbiosis between Paramecium bursaria and Chlorella spp., we demonstrate that this mechanism is dependent on the host RNA-interference (RNAi) system. We reveal through small RNA (sRNA) sequencing that endosymbiont-derived messenger RNA (mRNA) released upon endosymbiont digestion can be processed by the host RNAi system into 23-nt sRNA. We predict multiple regions of shared sequence identity between endosymbiont and host mRNA, and demonstrate through delivery of synthetic endosymbiont sRNA that exposure to these regions can knock down expression of complementary host genes, resulting in a cost to host growth. This process of host gene knockdown in response to endosymbiont-derived RNA processing by host RNAi factors, which we term “RNAi collisions,” represents a mechanism that can promote stability in a facultative eukaryote–eukaryote endosymbiosis. Specifically, by imposing a cost for breakdown of the endosymbiosis, endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions may drive maintenance of the symbiosis across fluctuating ecological conditions.
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21
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Hall C, Camilli S, Dwaah H, Kornegay B, Lacy C, Hill MS, Hill AL. Freshwater sponge hosts and their green algae symbionts: a tractable model to understand intracellular symbiosis. PeerJ 2021; 9:e10654. [PMID: 33614268 PMCID: PMC7882143 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In many freshwater habitats, green algae form intracellular symbioses with a variety of heterotrophic host taxa including several species of freshwater sponge. These sponges perform important ecological roles in their habitats, and the poriferan:green algae partnerships offers unique opportunities to study the evolutionary origins and ecological persistence of endosymbioses. We examined the association between Ephydatia muelleri and its chlorophyte partner to identify features of host cellular and genetic responses to the presence of intracellular algal partners. Chlorella-like green algal symbionts were isolated from field-collected adult E. muelleri tissue harboring algae. The sponge-derived algae were successfully cultured and subsequently used to reinfect aposymbiotic E. muelleri tissue. We used confocal microscopy to follow the fate of the sponge-derived algae after inoculating algae-free E. muelleri grown from gemmules to show temporal patterns of symbiont location within host tissue. We also infected aposymbiotic E. muelleri with sponge-derived algae, and performed RNASeq to study differential expression patterns in the host relative to symbiotic states. We compare and contrast our findings with work in other systems (e.g., endosymbiotic Hydra) to explore possible conserved evolutionary pathways that may lead to stable mutualistic endosymbioses. Our work demonstrates that freshwater sponges offer many tractable qualities to study features of intracellular occupancy and thus meet criteria desired for a model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Hall
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Sara Camilli
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America.,Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States of America
| | - Henry Dwaah
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America
| | - Benjamin Kornegay
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America
| | - Christie Lacy
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America
| | - Malcolm S Hill
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America.,Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, ME, United States of America
| | - April L Hill
- Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA, United States of America.,Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, ME, United States of America
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22
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Miyokawa R, Kanaya HJ, Itoh TQ, Kobayakawa Y, Kusumi J. Immature symbiotic system between horizontally transmitted green algae and brown hydra. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2921. [PMID: 33536483 PMCID: PMC7859245 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82489-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Some strains of brown hydra (Hydra vulgaris) are able to harbor the green algae Chlorococcum in their endodermal epithelial cells as symbionts. However, the relationship between brown hydra and chlorococcum is considered to be incipient symbiosis because most artificially introduced symbionts are not stable and because symbiotic H. vulgaris strains are rare in the wild. In this study, we compared the gene expression levels of the newly established symbiotic hydra (strain 105G), the native symbiotic strain (J7), and their non-symbiotic polyps to determine what changes would occur at the early stage of the evolution of symbiosis. We found that both the 105G and J7 strains showed comparable expression patterns, exhibiting upregulation of lysosomal enzymes and downregulation of genes related to nematocyte development and function. Meanwhile, genes involved in translation and the respiratory chain were upregulated only in strain 105G. Furthermore, treatment with rapamycin, which inhibits translation activity, induced the degeneration of the symbiotic strains (105G and J7). This effect was severe in strain 105G. Our results suggested that evolving the ability to balance the cellular metabolism between the host and the symbiont is a key requirement for adapting to endosymbiosis with chlorococcum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Miyokawa
- grid.177174.30000 0001 2242 4849Graduate School of Integrated Science for Global Society, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395 Japan
| | - Hiroyuki J. Kanaya
- grid.177174.30000 0001 2242 4849School of Science, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395 Japan
| | - Taichi Q. Itoh
- grid.177174.30000 0001 2242 4849Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395 Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Kobayakawa
- grid.177174.30000 0001 2242 4849Faculty of Arts and Science, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395 Japan
| | - Junko Kusumi
- grid.177174.30000 0001 2242 4849Department of Environmental Changes, Faculty of Social and Cultural Studies, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka, 819-0395 Japan
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23
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Algal Diversity in Paramecium bursaria: Species Identification, Detection of Choricystis parasitica, and Assessment of the Interaction Specificity. DIVERSITY-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/d12080287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The ‘green’ ciliate Paramecium bursaria lives in mutualistic symbiosis with green algae belonging to the species Chlorella variabilis or Micractinium conductrix. We analysed the diversity of algal endosymbionts and their P. bursaria hosts in nine strains from geographically diverse origins. Therefore, their phylogenies using different molecular markers were inferred. The green paramecia belong to different syngens of P. bursaria. The intracellular algae were assigned to Chl. variabilis, M. conductrix or, surprisingly, Choricystis parasitica. This usually free-living alga co-occurs with M. conductrix in the host’s cytoplasm. Addressing the potential status of Chor. parasitica as second additional endosymbiont, we determined if it is capable of symbiosis establishment and replication within a host cell. Symbiont-free P. bursaria were generated by cycloheximid treatment. Those aposymbiotic P. bursaria were used for experimental infections to investigate the symbiosis specificity not only between P. bursaria and Chor. parasitica but including also Chl. variabilis and M. conductrix. For each algae we observed the uptake and incorporation in individual perialgal vacuoles. These host-symbiont associations are stable since more than five months. Thus, Chor. parasitica and P. bursaria can form an intimate and long-term interaction. This study provides new insights into the diversity of P. bursaria algal symbionts.
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24
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Epidemiology of Nucleus-Dwelling Holospora: Infection, Transmission, Adaptation, and Interaction with Paramecium. Results Probl Cell Differ 2020; 69:105-135. [PMID: 33263870 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-51849-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The chapter describes the exceptional symbiotic associations formed between the ciliate Paramecium and Holospora, highly infectious bacteria residing in the host nuclei. Holospora and Holospora-like bacteria (Alphaproteobacteria) are characterized by their ability for vertical and horizontal transmission in host populations, a complex biphasic life cycle, and pronounced preference for host species and colonized cell compartment. These bacteria are obligate intracellular parasites; thus, their metabolic repertoire is dramatically reduced. Nevertheless, they perform complex interactions with the host ciliate. We review ongoing efforts to unravel the molecular adaptations of these bacteria to their unusual lifestyle and the host's employment in the symbiosis. Furthermore, we summarize current knowledge on the genetic and genomic background of Paramecium-Holospora symbiosis and provide insights into the ecological and evolutionary consequences of this interaction. The diversity and occurrence of symbioses between ciliates and Holospora-like bacteria in nature is discussed in connection with transmission modes of symbionts, host specificity and compatibility of the partners. We aim to summarize 50 years of research devoted to these symbiotic systems and conclude trying to predict some perspectives for further studies.
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25
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Van Etten JL, Agarkova IV, Dunigan DD. Chloroviruses. Viruses 2019; 12:E20. [PMID: 31878033 PMCID: PMC7019647 DOI: 10.3390/v12010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses are large dsDNA, plaque-forming viruses that infect certain chlorella-like green algae; the algae are normally mutualistic endosymbionts of protists and metazoans and are often referred to as zoochlorellae. The viruses are ubiquitous in inland aqueous environments throughout the world and occasionally single types reach titers of thousands of plaque-forming units per ml of native water. The viruses are icosahedral in shape with a spike structure located at one of the vertices. They contain an internal membrane that is required for infectivity. The viral genomes are 290 to 370 kb in size, which encode up to 16 tRNAs and 330 to ~415 proteins, including many not previously seen in viruses. Examples include genes encoding DNA restriction and modification enzymes, hyaluronan and chitin biosynthetic enzymes, polyamine biosynthetic enzymes, ion channel and transport proteins, and enzymes involved in the glycan synthesis of the virus major capsid glycoproteins. The proteins encoded by many of these viruses are often the smallest or among the smallest proteins of their class. Consequently, some of the viral proteins are the subject of intensive biochemical and structural investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L. Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; (I.V.A.); (D.D.D.)
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26
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Chloroviruses Lure Hosts through Long-Distance Chemical Signaling. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01688-18. [PMID: 30626679 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01688-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses exist in aquatic systems around the planet and they infect certain eukaryotic green algae that are mutualistic endosymbionts in a variety of protists and metazoans. Natural chlorovirus populations are seasonally dynamic, but the precise temporal changes in these populations and the mechanisms that underlie them have heretofore been unclear. We recently reported the novel concept that predator/prey-mediated virus activation regulates chlorovirus population dynamics, and in the current study, we demonstrate virus-packaged chemotactic modulation of prey behavior.IMPORTANCE Viruses have not previously been reported to act as chemotactic/chemoattractive agents. Rather, viruses as extracellular entities are generally viewed as non-metabolically active spore-like agents that await further infection events upon collision with appropriate host cells. That a virus might actively contribute to its fate via chemotaxis and change the behavior of an organism independent of infection is unprecedented.
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He M, Wang J, Fan X, Liu X, Shi W, Huang N, Zhao F, Miao M. Genetic basis for the establishment of endosymbiosis in Paramecium. ISME JOURNAL 2019; 13:1360-1369. [PMID: 30647459 PMCID: PMC6474222 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-018-0341-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The single-celled ciliate Paramecium bursaria is an indispensable model for investigating endosymbiosis between protists and green-algal symbionts. To elucidate the mechanism of this type of endosymbiosis, we combined PacBio and Illumina sequencing to assemble a high-quality and near-complete macronuclear genome of P. bursaria. The genomic characteristics and phylogenetic analyses indicate that P. bursaria is the basal clade of the Paramecium genus. Through comparative genomic analyses with its close relatives, we found that P. bursaria encodes more genes related to nitrogen metabolism and mineral absorption, but encodes fewer genes involved in oxygen binding and N-glycan biosynthesis. A comparison of the transcriptomic profiles between P. bursaria with and without endosymbiotic Chlorella showed differential expression of a wide range of metabolic genes. We selected 32 most differentially expressed genes to perform RNA interference experiment in P. bursaria, and found that P. bursaria can regulate the abundance of their symbionts through glutamine supply. This study provides novel insights into Paramecium evolution and will extend our knowledge of the molecular mechanism for the induction of endosymbiosis between P. bursaria and green algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming He
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.,Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Jinfeng Wang
- Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Xinpeng Fan
- School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Xiaohui Liu
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Wenyu Shi
- Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Ning Huang
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.,Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Fangqing Zhao
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China. .,Beijing Institutes of Life Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China. .,Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, China.
| | - Miao Miao
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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28
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Grosser K, Ramasamy P, Amirabad AD, Schulz MH, Gasparoni G, Simon M, Schrallhammer M. More than the "Killer Trait": Infection with the Bacterial Endosymbiont Caedibacter taeniospiralis Causes Transcriptomic Modulation in Paramecium Host. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 10:646-656. [PMID: 29390087 PMCID: PMC5814942 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evy024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Endosymbiosis is a widespread phenomenon and hosts of bacterial endosymbionts can be found all-over the eukaryotic tree of life. Likely, this evolutionary success is connected to the altered phenotype arising from a symbiotic association. The potential variety of symbiont’s contributions to new characteristics or abilities of host organisms are largely unstudied. Addressing this aspect, we focused on an obligate bacterial endosymbiont that confers an intraspecific killer phenotype to its host. The symbiosis between Paramecium tetraurelia and Caedibacter taeniospiralis, living in the host’s cytoplasm, enables the infected paramecia to release Caedibacter symbionts, which can simultaneously produce a peculiar protein structure and a toxin. The ingestion of bacteria that harbor both components leads to the death of symbiont-free congeners. Thus, the symbiosis provides Caedibacter-infected cells a competitive advantage, the “killer trait.” We characterized the adaptive gene expression patterns in symbiont-harboring Paramecium as a second symbiosis-derived aspect next to the killer phenotype. Comparative transcriptomics of infected P. tetraurelia and genetically identical symbiont-free cells confirmed altered gene expression in the symbiont-bearing line. Our results show up-regulation of specific metabolic and heat shock genes whereas down-regulated genes were involved in signaling pathways and cell cycle regulation. Functional analyses to validate the transcriptomics results demonstrated that the symbiont increases host density hence providing a fitness advantage. Comparative transcriptomics shows gene expression modulation of a ciliate caused by its bacterial endosymbiont thus revealing new adaptive advantages of the symbiosis. Caedibacter taeniospiralis apparently increases its host fitness via manipulation of metabolic pathways and cell cycle control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Grosser
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Germany
| | - Pathmanaban Ramasamy
- Excellence Cluster for Multimodal Computing and Interaction, Saarland Informatics Campus, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany.,Molecular Cell Dynamics, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Azim Dehghani Amirabad
- Excellence Cluster for Multimodal Computing and Interaction, Saarland Informatics Campus, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany.,Computational Biology and Applied Algorithmics, Max-Planck-Institute for Informatics, Saarland Informatics Campus, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Marcel H Schulz
- Excellence Cluster for Multimodal Computing and Interaction, Saarland Informatics Campus, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany.,Computational Biology and Applied Algorithmics, Max-Planck-Institute for Informatics, Saarland Informatics Campus, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Gilles Gasparoni
- Genetics, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Martin Simon
- Molecular Cell Dynamics, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Martina Schrallhammer
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert-Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Germany
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Endosymbiosis-related changes in ultrastructure and chemical composition of Chlorella variabilis (Archaeplastida, Chlorophyta) cell wall in Paramecium bursaria (Ciliophora, Oligohymenophorea). Eur J Protistol 2018; 66:149-155. [PMID: 30286318 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 09/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Chlorella variabilis, a symbiotic alga, is usually present in the cytoplasm of Paramecium bursaria, although it can be cultured in host-free conditions. Morphological and chemical properties of its cell wall were compared between its free-living and symbiotic states. Transmission electron microscopy (quick-freezing and freeze-substitution methods) revealed that the cell wall thickness of symbiotic C. variabilis was reduced to about half that of the free-living one. Chemical properties of the cell wall were examined by treatment with three fluorescent reagents (calcofluor white M2R, FITC-WGA, and FITC-LFA) having specific binding affinities to different polysaccharides. When the algae were re-introduced into Paramecium host cells, calcofluor fluorescence intensity reduced by about 50%. Calcofluor stains β-d-glucopyranose polysaccharides such as cellulose, N-acetylglucosamine, sialic acid, and glycosaminoglycans. Because treatment with cellulase showed no effect on calcofluor fluorescence intensity, we consider that cellulose is not majorly responsible for the stainability of calcofluor. Staining intensities of FITC-WGA and FITC-LFA were similar in the free-living and symbiotic conditions, suggesting that N-acetylglucosamine and sialic acid are also not responsible for the reduction in the stainability of calcofluor associated with intracellular symbiosis. The amount of glycosaminoglycans on the cell wall may decrease in C. variabilis present in the cytoplasm of P. bursaria.
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30
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Hamada M, Schröder K, Bathia J, Kürn U, Fraune S, Khalturina M, Khalturin K, Shinzato C, Satoh N, Bosch TC. Metabolic co-dependence drives the evolutionarily ancient Hydra-Chlorella symbiosis. eLife 2018; 7:35122. [PMID: 29848439 PMCID: PMC6019070 DOI: 10.7554/elife.35122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many multicellular organisms rely on symbiotic associations for support of metabolic activity, protection, or energy. Understanding the mechanisms involved in controlling such interactions remains a major challenge. In an unbiased approach we identified key players that control the symbiosis between Hydra viridissima and its photosynthetic symbiont Chlorella sp. A99. We discovered significant up-regulation of Hydra genes encoding a phosphate transporter and glutamine synthetase suggesting regulated nutrition supply between host and symbionts. Interestingly, supplementing the medium with glutamine temporarily supports in vitro growth of the otherwise obligate symbiotic Chlorella, indicating loss of autonomy and dependence on the host. Genome sequencing of Chlorella sp. A99 revealed a large number of amino acid transporters and a degenerated nitrate assimilation pathway, presumably as consequence of the adaptation to the host environment. Our observations portray ancient symbiotic interactions as a codependent partnership in which exchange of nutrients appears to be the primary driving force.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuko Hamada
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan.,Ushimado Marine Institute, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Katja Schröder
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.,Zoological Institute, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Jay Bathia
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.,Zoological Institute, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Ulrich Kürn
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.,Zoological Institute, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Sebastian Fraune
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.,Zoological Institute, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Mariia Khalturina
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Konstantin Khalturin
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Chuya Shinzato
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan.,Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nori Satoh
- Marine Genomics Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Thomas Cg Bosch
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.,Zoological Institute, Kiel Life Science, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany
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31
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Arriola MB, Velmurugan N, Zhang Y, Plunkett MH, Hondzo H, Barney BM. Genome sequences of Chlorella sorokiniana UTEX 1602 and Micractinium conductrix SAG 241.80: implications to maltose excretion by a green alga. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 93:566-586. [PMID: 29178410 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Green algae represent a key segment of the global species capable of photoautotrophic-driven biological carbon fixation. Algae partition fixed-carbon into chemical compounds required for biomass, while diverting excess carbon into internal storage compounds such as starch and lipids or, in certain cases, into targeted extracellular compounds. Two green algae were selected to probe for critical components associated with sugar production and release in a model alga. Chlorella sorokiniana UTEX 1602 - which does not release significant quantities of sugars to the extracellular space - was selected as a control to compare with the maltose-releasing Micractinium conductrix SAG 241.80 - which was originally isolated from an endosymbiotic association with the ciliate Paramecium bursaria. Both strains were subjected to three sequencing approaches to assemble their genomes and annotate their genes. This analysis was further complemented with transcriptional studies during maltose release by M. conductrix SAG 241.80 versus conditions where sugar release is minimal. The annotation revealed that both strains contain homologs for the key components of a putative pathway leading to cytosolic maltose accumulation, while transcriptional studies found few changes in mRNA levels for the genes associated with these established intracellular sugar pathways. A further analysis of potential sugar transporters found multiple homologs for SWEETs and tonoplast sugar transporters. The analysis of transcriptional differences revealed a lesser and more measured global response for M. conductrix SAG 241.80 versus C. sorokiniana UTEX 1602 during conditions resulting in sugar release, providing a catalog of genes that might play a role in extracellular sugar transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew B Arriola
- Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Natarajan Velmurugan
- Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Ying Zhang
- Minnesota Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Mary H Plunkett
- Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Hanna Hondzo
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Brett M Barney
- Biotechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
- Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, 55108, USA
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32
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Kawai S, Araki S, Kodama Y. No mutual symbiosis following infection of algae-free Paramecium bursaria with symbiotic algae from Mayorella viridis. Symbiosis 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-017-0517-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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33
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Minaeva E, Ermilova E. Responses triggered in chloroplast of Chlorella variabilis NC64A by long-term association with Paramecium bursaria. PROTOPLASMA 2017; 254:1769-1776. [PMID: 28074287 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-016-1073-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The unicellular green alga Chlorella variabilis NC64A is an endosymbiont of the ciliate Paramecium bursaria. The host's control, including the transfer of biochemical substrates from P. bursaria to C. variabilis, is involved in symbiotic relationships. C. variabilis NC64A that had been re-infected to P. bursaria for more than 1 year and isolated from the host showed higher chlorophyll levels compared to those in free-living cells. Unlike the host, the expression of C. variabilis NC64A heat shock 70 kDa protein was independent of establishment of endosymbiosis. In symbiotic cells, the levels of PII signal transduction protein (CvPII) that coordinate the central C/N anabolic metabolism were slightly higher than those in free-living cells. Furthermore, the environmental cues (light and host food bacteria availability) affected the abundance of CvPII, suggesting that synthesis of the protein was influenced by the host. Moreover, arginine concentrations in the symbiotic algae of P. bursaria were also controlled by the host's nutritional conditions. Together, our results imply that signal substrates and/or products of metabolism in host cells might act as messengers mediating the regulation of key events in symbiont cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Minaeva
- Laboratory Adaptation in Microorganisms, Biological Faculty, Saint-Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya em. 7/9, 199034, Saint-Petersburg, Russia
| | - Elena Ermilova
- Laboratory Adaptation in Microorganisms, Biological Faculty, Saint-Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya em. 7/9, 199034, Saint-Petersburg, Russia.
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34
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Van Etten JL, Agarkova I, Dunigan DD, Tonetti M, De Castro C, Duncan GA. Chloroviruses Have a Sweet Tooth. Viruses 2017; 9:E88. [PMID: 28441734 PMCID: PMC5408694 DOI: 10.3390/v9040088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses are large double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses that infect certain isolates of chlorella-like green algae. They contain up to approximately 400 protein-encoding genes and 16 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes. This review summarizes the unexpected finding that many of the chlorovirus genes encode proteins involved in manipulating carbohydrates. These include enzymes involved in making extracellular polysaccharides, such as hyaluronan and chitin, enzymes that make nucleotide sugars, such as GDP-L-fucose and GDP-D-rhamnose and enzymes involved in the synthesis of glycans attached to the virus major capsid proteins. This latter process differs from that of all other glycoprotein containing viruses that traditionally use the host endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi machinery to synthesize and transfer the glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
| | - Irina Agarkova
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
| | - David D Dunigan
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
| | - Michela Tonetti
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova Viale Benedetto XV/1, 16132 Genova, Italy.
| | - Christina De Castro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, NA, Italy.
| | - Garry A Duncan
- Department of Biology, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, NE 68504-2796, USA.
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35
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Bella C, Koehler L, Grosser K, Berendonk TU, Petroni G, Schrallhammer M. Fitness Impact of Obligate Intranuclear Bacterial Symbionts Depends on Host Growth Phase. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:2084. [PMID: 28066397 PMCID: PMC5177645 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.02084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
According to text book definition, parasites reduce the fitness of their hosts whereas mutualists provide benefits. But biotic and abiotic factors influence symbiotic interactions, thus under certain circumstances parasites can provide benefits and mutualists can harm their host. Here we addressed the question which intrinsic biotic factors shape a symbiosis and are crucial for the outcome of the interaction between the obligate intranuclear bacterium Holospora caryophila (Alphaproteobacteria; Rickettsiales) and its unicellular eukaryotic host Paramecium biaurelia (Alveolata; Ciliophora). The virulence of H. caryophila, i.e., the negative fitness effect on host division and cell number, was determined by growth assays of several P. biaurelia strains. The performances of genetically identical lines either infected with H. caryophila or symbiont-free were compared. Following factors were considered as potentially influencing the outcome of the interaction: (1) host strain, (2) parasite strain, and (3) growth phases of the host. All three factors revealed a strong effect on the symbiosis. In presence of H. caryophila, the Paramecium density in the stationary growth phase decreased. Conversely, a positive effect of the bacteria during the exponential phase was observed for several host × parasite combinations resulting in an increased growth rate of infected P. biaurelia. Furthermore, the fitness impact of the tested endosymbionts on different P. biaurelia lines was not only dependent on one of the two involved strains but distinct for the specific combination. Depending on the current host growth phase, the presence of H. caryophila can be harmful or advantageous for P. biaurelia. Thus, under the tested experimental conditions, the symbionts can switch from the provision of benefits to the exploitation of host resources within the same host population and a time-span of less than 6 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Bella
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert-Ludwigs Universität FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- Zoology-Anthropology Unit, Biology Department, Università di PisaPisa, Italy
| | - Lars Koehler
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert-Ludwigs Universität FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
| | - Katrin Grosser
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert-Ludwigs Universität FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
| | | | - Giulio Petroni
- Zoology-Anthropology Unit, Biology Department, Università di PisaPisa, Italy
| | - Martina Schrallhammer
- Microbiology, Institute of Biology II, Albert-Ludwigs Universität FreiburgFreiburg, Germany
- Institute of Hydrobiology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
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36
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Predators catalyze an increase in chloroviruses by foraging on the symbiotic hosts of zoochlorellae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:13780-13784. [PMID: 27821770 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1613843113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus population growth depends on contacts between viruses and their hosts. It is often unclear how sufficient contacts are made between viruses and their specific hosts to generate spikes in viral abundance. Here, we show that copepods, acting as predators, can bring aquatic viruses and their algal hosts into contact. Specifically, predation of the protist Paramecium bursaria by copepods resulted in a >100-fold increase in the number of chloroviruses in 1 d. Copepod predation can be seen as an ecological "catalyst" by increasing contacts between chloroviruses and their hosts, zoochlorellae (endosymbiotic algae that live within paramecia), thereby facilitating viral population growth. When feeding, copepods passed P. bursaria through their digestive tract only partially digested, releasing endosymbiotic algae that still supported viral reproduction and resulting in a virus population spike. A simple predator-prey model parameterized for copepods consuming protists generates cycle periods for viruses consistent with those observed in natural ponds. Food webs are replete with similar symbiotic organisms, and we suspect the predator catalyst mechanism is capable of generating blooms for other endosymbiont-targeting viruses.
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37
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Quispe CF, Esmael A, Sonderman O, McQuinn M, Agarkova I, Battah M, Duncan GA, Dunigan DD, Smith TPL, De Castro C, Speciale I, Ma F, Van Etten JL. Characterization of a new chlorovirus type with permissive and non-permissive features on phylogenetically related algal strains. Virology 2016; 500:103-113. [PMID: 27816636 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A previous report indicated that prototype chlorovirus PBCV-1 replicated in two Chlorella variabilis algal strains, NC64A and Syngen 2-3, that are ex-endosymbionts isolated from the protozoan Paramecium bursaria. Surprisingly, plaque-forming viruses on Syngen 2-3 lawns were often higher than on NC64A lawns from indigenous water samples. These differences led to the discovery of viruses that exclusively replicate in Syngen 2-3 cells, named Only Syngen (OSy) viruses. OSy-NE5, the prototype virus for the proposed new species, had a linear dsDNA genome of 327kb with 44-nucleotide-long, incompletely base-paired, covalently closed hairpin ends. Each hairpin structure was followed by an identical 2612 base-paired inverted sequence after which the DNA sequence diverged. OSy-NE5 encoded 357 predicted CDSs and 13 tRNAs. Interestingly, OSy-NE5 attached to and initiated infection in NC64A cells but infectious progeny viruses were not produced; thus OSy-NE5 replication in NC64A is blocked at some later stage of replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian F Quispe
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; School of Biological Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68588-0118, USA
| | - Ahmed Esmael
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Qalubiya Governorate, 13511, Egypt
| | - Olivia Sonderman
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; School of Biological Science, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68588-0118, USA
| | - Michelle McQuinn
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA
| | - Irina Agarkova
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; Department of Plant Pathology and University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0722, USA
| | - Mohammed Battah
- Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benha University, Qalubiya Governorate, 13511, Egypt
| | - Garry A Duncan
- Department of Biology, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, NE 68504-2794, USA
| | - David D Dunigan
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; Department of Plant Pathology and University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0722, USA
| | - Timothy P L Smith
- Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, NE 68933-0166, USA
| | - Cristina De Castro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Universita 100, 80055 Portici, NA, Italy
| | | | - Fangrui Ma
- Center for Biotechnology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA
| | - James L Van Etten
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; Department of Plant Pathology and University of Nebraska-Lincoln, NE 68583-0722, USA.
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Penha LL, Hoffmann L, Souza SSD, Martins ACDA, Bottaro T, Prosdocimi F, Faffe DS, Motta MCM, Ürményi TP, Silva R. Symbiont modulates expression of specific gene categories in Angomonas deanei. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2016; 111:686-691. [PMID: 27706380 PMCID: PMC5125052 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760160228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomatids are parasites that cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. Most
are non-pathogenic and some harbor a symbiotic bacterium. Endosymbiosis is part of
the evolutionary process of vital cell functions such as respiration and
photosynthesis. Angomonas deanei is an example of a
symbiont-containing trypanosomatid. In this paper, we sought to investigate how
symbionts influence host cells by characterising and comparing the transcriptomes of
the symbiont-containing A. deanei (wild type) and the symbiont-free
aposymbiotic strains. The comparison revealed that the presence of the symbiont
modulates several differentially expressed genes. Empirical analysis of differential
gene expression showed that 216 of the 7625 modulated genes were significantly
changed. Finally, gene set enrichment analysis revealed that the largest categories
of genes that downregulated in the absence of the symbiont were those involved in
oxidation-reduction process, ATP hydrolysis coupled proton transport and glycolysis.
In contrast, among the upregulated gene categories were those involved in
proteolysis, microtubule-based movement, and cellular metabolic process. Our results
provide valuable information for dissecting the mechanism of endosymbiosis in
A. deanei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciana Loureiro Penha
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Luísa Hoffmann
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Silvanna Sant'Anna de Souza
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | | | - Thayane Bottaro
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Francisco Prosdocimi
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Débora Souza Faffe
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | | | - Turán Péter Ürményi
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Rosane Silva
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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Quispe CF, Sonderman O, Khasin M, Riekhof WR, Van Etten JL, Nickerson KW. Comparative genomics, transcriptomics, and physiology distinguish symbiotic from free-living Chlorella strains. ALGAL RES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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40
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Heaphy SM, Mariotti M, Gladyshev VN, Atkins JF, Baranov PV. Novel Ciliate Genetic Code Variants Including the Reassignment of All Three Stop Codons to Sense Codons in Condylostoma magnum. Mol Biol Evol 2016; 33:2885-2889. [PMID: 27501944 PMCID: PMC5062323 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msw166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
mRNA translation in many ciliates utilizes variant genetic codes where stop codons are reassigned to specify amino acids. To characterize the repertoire of ciliate genetic codes, we analyzed ciliate transcriptomes from marine environments. Using codon substitution frequencies in ciliate protein-coding genes and their orthologs, we inferred the genetic codes of 24 ciliate species. Nine did not match genetic code tables currently assigned by NCBI. Surprisingly, we identified a novel genetic code where all three standard stop codons (TAA, TAG, and TGA) specify amino acids in Condylostoma magnum. We provide evidence suggesting that the functions of these codons in C. magnum depend on their location within mRNA. They are decoded as amino acids at internal positions, but specify translation termination when in close proximity to an mRNA 3′ end. The frequency of stop codons in protein coding sequences of closely related Climacostomum virens suggests that it may represent a transitory state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen M Heaphy
- School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Marco Mariotti
- Division of Genetics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Vadim N Gladyshev
- Division of Genetics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - John F Atkins
- School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Pavel V Baranov
- School of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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Ishikawa M, Yuyama I, Shimizu H, Nozawa M, Ikeo K, Gojobori T. Different Endosymbiotic Interactions in Two Hydra Species Reflect the Evolutionary History of Endosymbiosis. Genome Biol Evol 2016; 8:2155-63. [PMID: 27324918 PMCID: PMC4987108 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evw142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Endosymbiosis is an important evolutionary event for organisms, and there is widespread interest in understanding the evolution of endosymbiosis establishment. Hydra is one of the most suitable organisms for studying the evolution of endosymbiosis. Within the genus Hydra, H. viridissima and H. vulgaris show endosymbiosis with green algae. Previous studies suggested that the endosymbiosis in H. vulgaris took place much more recently than that in H. viridissima, noting that the establishment of the interaction between H. vulgaris and its algae is not as stable as in H. viridissima. To investigate the on-going process of endosymbiosis, we first compared growth and tolerance to starvation in symbiotic and aposymbiotic polyps of both species. The results revealed that symbiotic H. viridissima had a higher growth rate and greater tolerance to starvation than aposymbiotic polyps. By contrast, growth of symbiotic H. vulgaris was identical to that of aposymbiotic polyps, and symbiotic H. vulgaris was less tolerant to starvation. Moreover, our gene expression analysis showed a pattern of differential gene expression in H. viridissima similar to that in other endosymbiotically established organisms, and contrary to that observed in H. vulgaris. We also showed that H. viridissima could cope with oxidative stress that caused damage, such as cell death, in H. vulgaris. These observations support the idea that oxidative stress related genes play an important role in the on-going process of endosymbiosis evolution. The different evolutionary stages of endosymbiosis studied here provide a deeper insight into the evolutionary processes occurring toward a stable endosymbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masakazu Ishikawa
- Department of Genetics, SOKENDAI, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan Center for Information Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Ikuko Yuyama
- Center for Information Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Shimizu
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Computational Bioscience Research Center, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Masafumi Nozawa
- Department of Genetics, SOKENDAI, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan Center for Information Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuho Ikeo
- Department of Genetics, SOKENDAI, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan Center for Information Biology, National Institute of Genetics, Yata, Mishima, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Takashi Gojobori
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Computational Bioscience Research Center, Thuwal, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Differences in infectivity between endosymbiotic Chlorella variabilis cultivated outside host Paramecium bursaria for 50 years and those immediately isolated from host cells after one year of reendosymbiosis. Biol Open 2015; 5:55-61. [PMID: 26718931 PMCID: PMC4728303 DOI: 10.1242/bio.013946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorella variabilis strain NC64A is an intracellular photobiont of the ciliate Paramecium bursaria. NC64A was isolated from P. bursaria nearly 50 years ago and was thereafter cultivated outside the host. This study was undertaken to detect changes in its infectivity to P. bursaria and its auxotrophy for growth outside the host induced during long-term cultivation. NC64A can grow in Modified Bold's Basal Medium but not in C medium, whereas another symbiotic Chlorella variabilis strain, 1N, that was recently isolated from the host grew in C medium but not in Modified Bold's Basal Medium. With regards infectivity, NC64A in the logarithmic phase of growth showed low infectivity to alga-removed P. bursaria cells, whereas those in the early stationary phase showed high infectivity of about 30%. Those in the decay phase of growth showed no infectivity. Results show that NC64A has infectivity, but the infection rate depends on their culture age in the growth curve. Furthermore, NC64A that had been re-infected to P. bursaria for more than one year and isolated from the host showed a nearly 100% infection rate, which indicates that NC64A can recover its infectivity by re-infection to P. bursaria. Summary: This study was undertaken to detect changes in infectivity induced during long-term cultivation of Chlorella variabilis to alga-free Paramecium bursaria, and its auxotrophy for growth outside the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kodama
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu-cho, Matsue-shi, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
| | - M Fujishima
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida 1677-1, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
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Plattner H. Signalling in ciliates: long- and short-range signals and molecular determinants for cellular dynamics. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 92:60-107. [PMID: 26487631 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In ciliates, unicellular representatives of the bikont branch of evolution, inter- and intracellular signalling pathways have been analysed mainly in Paramecium tetraurelia, Paramecium multimicronucleatum and Tetrahymena thermophila and in part also in Euplotes raikovi. Electrophysiology of ciliary activity in Paramecium spp. is a most successful example. Established signalling mechanisms include plasmalemmal ion channels, recently established intracellular Ca2+ -release channels, as well as signalling by cyclic nucleotides and Ca2+ . Ca2+ -binding proteins (calmodulin, centrin) and Ca2+ -activated enzymes (kinases, phosphatases) are involved. Many organelles are endowed with specific molecules cooperating in signalling for intracellular transport and targeted delivery. Among them are recently specified soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs), monomeric GTPases, H+ -ATPase/pump, actin, etc. Little specification is available for some key signal transducers including mechanosensitive Ca2+ -channels, exocyst complexes and Ca2+ -sensor proteins for vesicle-vesicle/membrane interactions. The existence of heterotrimeric G-proteins and of G-protein-coupled receptors is still under considerable debate. Serine/threonine kinases dominate by far over tyrosine kinases (some predicted by phosphoproteomic analyses). Besides short-range signalling, long-range signalling also exists, e.g. as firmly installed microtubular transport rails within epigenetically determined patterns, thus facilitating targeted vesicle delivery. By envisaging widely different phenomena of signalling and subcellular dynamics, it will be shown (i) that important pathways of signalling and cellular dynamics are established already in ciliates, (ii) that some mechanisms diverge from higher eukaryotes and (iii) that considerable uncertainties still exist about some essential aspects of signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helmut Plattner
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, PO Box M625, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
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Lasek-Nesselquist E, Wisecaver JH, Hackett JD, Johnson MD. Insights into transcriptional changes that accompany organelle sequestration from the stolen nucleus of Mesodinium rubrum. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:805. [PMID: 26475598 PMCID: PMC4609049 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-2052-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Organelle retention is a form of mixotrophy that allows organisms to reap metabolic benefits similar to those of photoautotrophs through capture of algal prey and sequestration of their plastids. Mesodinium rubrum is an abundant and broadly distributed photosynthetic marine ciliate that steals organelles from cryptophyte algae, such as Geminigera cryophila. M. rubrum is unique from most other acquired phototrophs because it also steals a functional nucleus that facilitates genetic control of sequestered plastids and other organelles. We analyzed changes in G. cryophila nuclear gene expression and transcript abundance after its incorporation into the cellular architecture of M. rubrum as an initial step towards understanding this complex system. Methods We compared Illumina-generated transcriptomes of the cryptophyte Geminigera cryophila as a free-living cell and as a sequestered nucleus in M. rubrum to identify changes in protein abundance and gene expression. After KEGG annotation, proteins were clustered by functional categories, which were evaluated for over- or under-representation in the sequestered nucleus. Similarly, coding sequences were grouped by KEGG categories/pathways, which were then evaluated for over- or under-expression via read count strategies. Results At the time of sampling, the global transcriptome of M. rubrum was dominated (~58–62 %) by transcription from its stolen nucleus. A comparison of transcriptomes from free-living G. cryophila cells to those of the sequestered nucleus revealed a decrease in gene expression and transcript abundance for most functional protein categories within the ciliate. However, genes coding for proteins involved in photosynthesis, oxidative stress reduction, and several other metabolic pathways revealed striking exceptions to this general decline. Conclusions Major changes in G. cryophila transcript expression after sequestration by M. rubrum and the ciliate’s success as a photoautotroph imply some level of control or gene regulation by the ciliate and at the very least reflect a degree of coordination between host and foreign organelles. Intriguingly, cryptophyte genes involved in protein transport are significantly under-expressed in M. rubrum, implicating a role for the ciliate’s endomembrane system in targeting cryptophyte proteins to plastid complexes. Collectively, this initial portrait of an acquired transcriptome within a dynamic and ecologically successful ciliate highlights the remarkable cellular and metabolic chimerism of this system. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-2052-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Matthew D Johnson
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 266 Woods Hole Road, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA.
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Dohra H, Fujishima M, Suzuki H. Analysis of amino acid and codon usage in Paramecium bursaria. FEBS Lett 2015; 589:3113-8. [PMID: 26341535 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2015.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The ciliate Paramecium bursaria harbors the green-alga Chlorella symbionts. We reassembled the P. bursaria transcriptome to minimize falsely fused transcripts, and investigated amino acid and codon usage using the transcriptome data. Surface proteins preferentially use smaller amino acid residues like cysteine. Unusual synonymous codon and amino acid usage in highly expressed genes can reflect a balance between translational selection and other factors. A correlation of gene expression level with synonymous codon or amino acid usage is emphasized in genes down-regulated in symbiont-bearing cells compared to symbiont-free cells. Our results imply that the selection is associated with P. bursaria-Chlorella symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Dohra
- Instrumental Research Support Office, Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Masahiro Fujishima
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan; National Bio-Resource Project of Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development, Japan
| | - Haruo Suzuki
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan.
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Cheaib M, Dehghani Amirabad A, Nordström KJV, Schulz MH, Simon M. Epigenetic regulation of serotype expression antagonizes transcriptome dynamics in Paramecium tetraurelia. DNA Res 2015; 22:293-305. [PMID: 26231545 PMCID: PMC4535620 DOI: 10.1093/dnares/dsv014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenotypic variation of a single genotype is achieved by alterations in gene expression patterns. Regulation of such alterations depends on their time scale, where short-time adaptations differ from permanently established gene expression patterns maintained by epigenetic mechanisms. In the ciliate Paramecium, serotypes were described for an epigenetically controlled gene expression pattern of an individual multigene family. Paradoxically, individual serotypes can be triggered in Paramecium by alternating environments but are then stabilized by epigenetic mechanisms, thus raising the question to which extend their expression follows environmental stimuli. To characterize environmental adaptation in the context of epigenetically controlled serotype expression, we used RNA-seq to characterize transcriptomes of serotype pure cultures. The resulting vegetative transcriptome resource is first analysed for genes involved in the adaptive response to the altered environment. Secondly, we identified groups of genes that do not follow the adaptive response but show co-regulation with the epigenetically controlled serotype system, suggesting that their gene expression pattern becomes manifested by similar mechanisms. In our experimental set-up, serotype expression and the entire group of co-regulated genes were stable among environmental changes and only heat-shock genes altered expression of these gene groups. The data suggest that the maintenance of these gene expression patterns in a lineage represents epigenetically controlled robustness counteracting short-time adaptation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Cheaib
- Molecular Cell Dynamics, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Azim Dehghani Amirabad
- Molecular Cell Dynamics, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany Cluster of Excellence for Multimodal Computing and Interaction, Saarland University and Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Karl J V Nordström
- Epigenetics Department, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Marcel H Schulz
- Cluster of Excellence for Multimodal Computing and Interaction, Saarland University and Max Planck Institute for Informatics, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
| | - Martin Simon
- Molecular Cell Dynamics, Centre for Human and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, Saarbrücken 66123, Germany
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Toyota K, Miyakawa H, Yamaguchi K, Shigenobu S, Ogino Y, Tatarazako N, Miyagawa S, Iguchi T. NMDA receptor activation upstream of methyl farnesoate signaling for short day-induced male offspring production in the water flea, Daphnia pulex. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:186. [PMID: 25867484 PMCID: PMC4372037 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1392-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2014] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cladoceran crustacean Daphnia pulex produces female offspring by parthenogenesis under favorable conditions, but in response to various unfavorable external stimuli, it produces male offspring (environmental sex determination: ESD). We recently established an innovative system for ESD studies using D. pulex WTN6 strain, in which the sex of the offspring can be controlled simply by changes in the photoperiod: the long-day and short-day conditions can induce female and male offspring, respectively. Taking advantage of this system, we demonstrated that de novo methyl farnesoate (MF) synthesis is necessary for male offspring production. These results indicate the key role of innate MF signaling as a conductor between external environmental stimuli and the endogenous male developmental pathway. Despite these findings, the molecular mechanisms underlying up- and downstream signaling of MF have not yet been well elucidated in D. pulex. RESULTS To elucidate up- and downstream events of MF signaling during sex determination processes, we compared the transcriptomes of daphnids reared under the long-day (female) condition with short-day (male) and MF-treated (male) conditions. We found that genes involved in ionotropic glutamate receptors, known to mediate the vast majority of excitatory neurotransmitting processes in various organisms, were significantly activated in daphnids by the short-day condition but not by MF treatment. Administration of specific agonists and antagonists, especially for the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor, strongly increased or decreased, respectively, the proportion of male-producing mothers. Moreover, we also identified genes responsible for male production (e.g., protein kinase C pathway-related genes). Such genes were generally shared between the short-day reared and MF-treated daphnids. CONCLUSIONS We identified several candidate genes regulating ESD which strongly suggests that these genes may be essential factors for male offspring production as an upstream regulator of MF signaling in D. pulex. This study provides new insight into the fundamental mechanisms underlying how living organisms alter their phenotypes in response to various external environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Toyota
- />Department of Basic Biology, Faculty of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
- />Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
| | - Hitoshi Miyakawa
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
- />Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
| | - Katsushi Yamaguchi
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
| | - Shuji Shigenobu
- />Department of Basic Biology, Faculty of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
| | - Yukiko Ogino
- />Department of Basic Biology, Faculty of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
- />Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
| | - Norihisa Tatarazako
- />National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506 Japan
| | - Shinichi Miyagawa
- />Department of Basic Biology, Faculty of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
- />Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
| | - Taisen Iguchi
- />Department of Basic Biology, Faculty of Life Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
- />National Institute for Basic Biology, 38 Nishigonaka, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8585 Japan
- />Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, 5-1 Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Aichi 444-8787 Japan
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