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Nerger BA, Jaslove JM, Elashal HE, Mao S, Košmrlj A, Link AJ, Nelson CM. Local accumulation of extracellular matrix regulates global morphogenetic patterning in the developing mammary gland. Curr Biol 2021; 31:1903-1917.e6. [PMID: 33705716 PMCID: PMC8119325 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The tree-like pattern of the mammary epithelium is formed during puberty through a process known as branching morphogenesis. Although mammary epithelial branching is stochastic and generates an epithelial tree with a random pattern of branches, the global orientation of the developing epithelium is predictably biased along the long axis of the gland. Here, we combine analysis of pubertal mouse mammary glands, a three-dimensional (3D)-printed engineered tissue model, and computational models of morphogenesis to investigate the origin and the dynamics of the global bias in epithelial orientation during pubertal mammary development. Confocal microscopy analysis revealed that a global bias emerges in the absence of pre-aligned networks of type I collagen in the fat pad and is maintained throughout pubertal development until the widespread formation of lateral branches. Using branching and annihilating random walk simulations, we found that the angle of bifurcation of terminal end buds (TEBs) dictates both the dynamics and the extent of the global bias in epithelial orientation. Our experimental and computational data demonstrate that a local increase in stiffness from the accumulation of extracellular matrix, which constrains the angle of bifurcation of TEBs, is sufficient to pattern the global orientation of the developing mammary epithelium. These data reveal that local mechanical properties regulate the global pattern of mammary epithelial branching and may provide new insight into the global patterning of other branched epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan A Nerger
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Jacob M Jaslove
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Hader E Elashal
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Sheng Mao
- Department of Mechanics and Engineering Science, BIC-ESAT, College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Andrej Košmrlj
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - A James Link
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Celeste M Nelson
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA; Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.
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2
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Messal HA, van Rheenen J, Scheele CLGJ. An Intravital Microscopy Toolbox to Study Mammary Gland Dynamics from Cellular Level to Organ Scale. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2021; 26:9-27. [PMID: 33945058 PMCID: PMC8217050 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-021-09487-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The architecture of the mouse mammary gland is highly dynamic and constantly remodeled during pubertal development and estrous cycle-driven sprouting and regression of alveolar side branches. During each of these developmental stages, turnover is driven by distinct subsets of mammary epithelial cells. Extensive previous research has shed light on the unique morphological and cell biological characteristics of each stage. However, technological shortcomings failed to capture the dynamics and single-cell contributions to mammary remodeling. Here, we developed in vivo imaging strategies to follow the same mammary ducts over time and quantify the dynamics of mammary gland growth and remodeling from single-cell level to organ scale. Using a combination of intravital microscopy and genetic reporter systems we show how proliferative heterogeneity drives ductal morphogenesis during different developmental stages. To visualize pubertal growth at the cellular level, we performed long-term time-lapse imaging of extending terminal end buds through a mammary imaging window. We show that single-cells within the terminal end buds are extremely motile and continuously exchange position whilst the duct is elongating. To visualize short-term remodeling in the adult mammary gland at the single cell level, we performed multi-day intravital imaging in photoconvertible Kikume Green-Red mice and fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator mice. We demonstrate that the contribution of single-cells to estrous-driven remodeling is highly variable between cells in the same micro-environment. To assess the effects of this dynamic proliferative contribution on the long-term stability of tissue architecture, we developed a repeated skin flap method to assess mammary gland morphology by intravital microscopy over extended time spans for up to six months. Interestingly, in contrast to the short-term dynamic remodeling, the long-term morphology of the mammary gland remains remarkably stable. Together, our tool box of imaging strategies allows to identify and map transient and continuing dynamics of single cells to the architecture of the mammary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik A. Messal
- grid.430814.aDivision of Molecular Pathology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Oncode Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jacco van Rheenen
- grid.430814.aDivision of Molecular Pathology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Oncode Institute, Plesmanlaan 121, 1066CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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3
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Phoon YP, Chivukula IV, Tsoi YL, Kanatani S, Uhlén P, Kuiper R, Lendahl U. Notch activation in the mouse mammary luminal lineage leads to ductal hyperplasia and altered partitioning of luminal cell subtypes. Exp Cell Res 2020; 395:112156. [PMID: 32707133 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2020.112156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Hyperactivated Notch signalling has been implicated in breast cancer, but how elevated levels of Notch signalling contribute to mammary dysplasia and tumorigenesis is not fully understood. In this study, we express an activated form of Notch1 in the mouse mammary luminal lineage and analyse the consequences for tumour formation and the transcriptomic landscape in the luminal lineage. Simultaneous conditional activation of a Notch1 intracellular domain (Notch1 ICD) and EGFP in the luminal lineage was achieved by removal of a stop cassette by CRE-recombinase expression from the whey acidic protein (WAP) promoter. Mice in which Notch1 ICD was activated in the luminal lineage (WAP-CRE;R26-N1ICD mice) exhibit ductal hyperplasia after lactation with an increase in branching frequency and in the number of side-branch ends in the ductal tree. A subset of the mice developed mammary tumours and the majority of the tumour cells expressed EGFP (as a proxy for Notch1 ICD), indicating that the tumours originate from the Notch1 ICD-expressing cells. Single-cell transcriptome analysis of the EGFP-positive mammary cells identified six subtypes of luminal cells. The same six subtypes were found in control mice (WAP-CRE;R26-tdTomato mice expressing the tdTomato reporter from WAP-CRE-mediated activation), but the proportion of cells in the various subtypes differed between the WAP-CRE;R26-N1ICD and control WAP-CRE;R26-tdTomato mice. In conclusion, we show that Notch1 ICD expression in the luminal lineage produces a ductal hyperplasia and branching phenotype accompanied by altered luminal cell subtype partitioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yee Peng Phoon
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Indira V Chivukula
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yat Long Tsoi
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Shigeaki Kanatani
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Per Uhlén
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Raoul Kuiper
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 52, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Urban Lendahl
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77, Stockholm, Sweden.
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4
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Lee W, Toussaint KC. Quantitative analysis of the effect of environmental-scanning electron microscopy on collagenous tissues. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8491. [PMID: 29855602 PMCID: PMC5981445 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26839-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental-scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) is routinely applied to various biological samples due to its ability to maintain a wet environment while imaging; moreover, the technique obviates the need for sample coating. However, there is limited research carried out on electron-beam (e-beam) induced tissue damage resulting from using the ESEM. In this paper, we use quantitative second-harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy to examine the effects of e-beam exposure from the ESEM on collagenous tissue samples prepared as either fixed, frozen, wet or dehydrated. Quantitative SHG analysis of tissues, before and after ESEM e-beam exposure in low-vacuum mode, reveals evidence of cross-linking of collagen fibers, however there are no structural differences observed in fixed tissue. Meanwhile wet-mode ESEM appears to radically alter the structure from a regular fibrous arrangement to a more random fiber orientation. We also confirm that ESEM images of collagenous tissues show higher spatial resolution compared to SHG microscopy, but the relative tradeoff with collagen specificity reduces its effectiveness in quantifying collagen fiber organization. Our work provides insight on both the limitations of the ESEM for tissue imaging, and the potential opportunity to use as a complementary technique when imaging fine features in the non-collagenous regions of tissue samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woowon Lee
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, 1206 W Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, United States
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, PROBE Lab, 1206 W Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, United States
| | - Kimani C Toussaint
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, 1206 W Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, United States.
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, PROBE Lab, 1206 W Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, United States.
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Affiliate in the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 1406 W Green Street, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, United States.
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Bioengineering, 1270 Digital Computer Laboratory, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, United States.
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Stanko JP, Fenton SE. Quantifying Branching Density in Rat Mammary Gland Whole-mounts Using the Sholl Analysis Method. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 28745626 DOI: 10.3791/55789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
An increasing number of studies are utilizing the rodent mammary gland as an endpoint for assessing the developmental toxicity of a chemical exposure. The effects these exposures have on mammary gland development are typically evaluated using either basic dimensional measurements or by scoring morphological characteristics. However, the broad range of methods for interpreting developmental changes could lead to inconsistent translations across laboratories. A common method of assessment is needed so that proper interpretations can be formed from data being compared across studies. The present study describes the application of the Sholl analysis method to quantify mammary gland branching characteristics. The Sholl method was originally developed for use in quantifying neuronal dendritic patterns. By using ImageJ, an open-source image analysis software package, and a plugin developed for this analysis, the mammary gland branching density and the complexity of a mammary gland from a peripubertal female rat were determined. The methods described here will enable the use of the Sholl analysis as an effective tool for quantifying an important characteristic of mammary gland development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Stanko
- National Toxicology Program Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
| | - Suzanne E Fenton
- National Toxicology Program Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences;
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6
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Berryhill GE, Brust-Mascher I, Huynh JH, Famula TR, Reardon C, Hovey RC. A Convenient Method for Evaluating Epithelial Cell Proliferation in the Whole Mammary Glands of Female Mice. Endocrinology 2016; 157:3742-3748. [PMID: 27571136 PMCID: PMC5045499 DOI: 10.1210/en.2016-1480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The mammary glands (MG) undergo rapid expansion of the ductal network during puberty in response to endocrine cues including the potent mitogenic effects of estrogen. The proliferation of mammary epithelial cells occurs in a spatially distinctive manner, where terminal end buds located at the ductal termini are the primary site of cell division. Here, we present a relatively high throughput approach to spatially assess epithelial cell proliferation in whole mouse MG using histochemical detection of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine in conjunction with a standard curve-based data deconvolution technique to semiquantitatively measure proliferation via wide-field epifluorescent microscopy. This approach was validated against the "gold standard" of counting labeled nuclei from confocal images utilizing computer-assisted image analysis. Our method proved sensitive enough to describe the significant and spatially variable proliferative response to low-dose estrogen after 108 hours. This flexible method presents a timely and economical approach to obtaining spatial information regarding epithelial cell proliferation in the mouse MG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace E Berryhill
- Department of Animal Science (G.E.B., J.H.H., T.R.F., R.C.H.) and University of California Davis Health Sciences District Advanced Imaging Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, (I.B.-M., C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Ingrid Brust-Mascher
- Department of Animal Science (G.E.B., J.H.H., T.R.F., R.C.H.) and University of California Davis Health Sciences District Advanced Imaging Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, (I.B.-M., C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Jill H Huynh
- Department of Animal Science (G.E.B., J.H.H., T.R.F., R.C.H.) and University of California Davis Health Sciences District Advanced Imaging Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, (I.B.-M., C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Thomas R Famula
- Department of Animal Science (G.E.B., J.H.H., T.R.F., R.C.H.) and University of California Davis Health Sciences District Advanced Imaging Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, (I.B.-M., C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Colin Reardon
- Department of Animal Science (G.E.B., J.H.H., T.R.F., R.C.H.) and University of California Davis Health Sciences District Advanced Imaging Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, (I.B.-M., C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Russell C Hovey
- Department of Animal Science (G.E.B., J.H.H., T.R.F., R.C.H.) and University of California Davis Health Sciences District Advanced Imaging Facility, School of Veterinary Medicine, (I.B.-M., C.R.), University of California, Davis, California 95616-8521
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7
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Peralta L, Mourier E, Richard C, Charpigny G, Larcher T, Aït-Belkacem D, Balla NK, Brasselet S, Tanter M, Muller M, Chavatte-Palmer P. In Vivo Evaluation of Cervical Stiffness Evolution during Induced Ripening Using Shear Wave Elastography, Histology and 2 Photon Excitation Microscopy: Insight from an Animal Model. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0133377. [PMID: 26317774 PMCID: PMC4552804 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prematurity affects 11% of the births and is the main cause of infant mortality. On the opposite case, the failure of induction of parturition in the case of delayed spontaneous birth is associated with fetal suffering. Both conditions are associated with precocious and/or delayed cervical ripening. Quantitative and objective information about the temporal evolution of the cervical ripening may provide a complementary method to identify cases at risk of preterm delivery and to assess the likelihood of successful induction of labour. In this study, the cervical stiffness was measured in vivo in pregnant sheep by using Shear Wave Elastography (SWE). This technique assesses the stiffness of tissue through the measurement of shear waves speed (SWS). In the present study, 9 pregnant ewes were used. Cervical ripening was induced at 127 days of pregnancy (term: 145 days) by dexamethasone injection in 5 animals, while 4 animals were used as control. Elastographic images of the cervix were obtained by two independent operators every 4 hours during 24 hours after injection to monitor the cervical maturation induced by the dexamethasone. Based on the measurements of SWS during vaginal ultrasound examination, the stiffness in the second ring of the cervix was quantified over a circular region of interest of 5 mm diameter. SWS was found to decrease significantly in the first 4-8 hours after dexamethasone compared to controls, which was associated with cervical ripening induced by dexamethasone (from 1.779 m/s ± 0.548 m/s, p < 0.0005, to 1.291 m/s ± 0.516 m/s, p < 0.000). Consequently a drop in the cervical elasticity was quantified too (from 9.5 kPa ± 0.9 kPa, p < 0.0005, to 5.0 kPa ± 0.8 kPa, p < 0.000). Moreover, SWE measurements were highly reproducible between both operators at all times. Cervical ripening induced by dexamethasone was confirmed by the significant increase in maternal plasma Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), as evidenced by the assay of its metabolite PGEM. Histological analyses and two-photon excitation microscopy, combining both Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) and Two-photon Fluorescence microscopy (2PF) contrasts, were used to investigate, at the microscopic scale, the structure of cervical tissue. Results show that both collagen and 2PF-active fibrillar structures could be closely related to the mechanical properties of cervical tissue that are perceptible in elastography. In conclusion, SWE may be a valuable method to objectively quantify the cervical stiffness and as a complementary diagnostic tool for preterm birth and for labour induction success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Peralta
- Department of Structural Mechanics, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Eve Mourier
- INRA, UMR 1198 Biologie du Développement et Reproduction, Jouy en Josas, France
- PremUp foundation, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Christophe Richard
- INRA, UMR 1198 Biologie du Développement et Reproduction, Jouy en Josas, France
- PremUp foundation, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Gilles Charpigny
- INRA, UMR 1198 Biologie du Développement et Reproduction, Jouy en Josas, France
| | | | - Dora Aït-Belkacem
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel UMR 7249, 13013 Marseille, France
| | - Naveen K. Balla
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel UMR 7249, 13013 Marseille, France
| | - Sophie Brasselet
- Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, Institut Fresnel UMR 7249, 13013 Marseille, France
| | - Mickael Tanter
- Institut Langevin, ESPCI ParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris Diderot - Paris 7, Paris, France
| | - Marie Muller
- Institut Langevin, ESPCI ParisTech, CNRS, Université Paris Diderot - Paris 7, Paris, France
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Pascale Chavatte-Palmer
- INRA, UMR 1198 Biologie du Développement et Reproduction, Jouy en Josas, France
- PremUp foundation, 75006 Paris, France
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Stanko JP, Easterling MR, Fenton SE. Application of Sholl analysis to quantify changes in growth and development in rat mammary gland whole mounts. Reprod Toxicol 2014; 54:129-35. [PMID: 25463529 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2014.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Studies that utilize the rodent mammary gland (MG) as an endpoint for assessing the developmental toxicity of chemical exposures typically employ either basic dimensional measurements or developmental scoring of morphological characteristics as a means to quantify MG development. There are numerous means by which to report these developmental changes, leading to inconsistent translation across laboratories. The Sholl analysis is a method historically used for quantifying neuronal dendritic patterns. The present study describes the use of the Sholl analysis to quantify MG branching characteristics. Using this method, we were able to detect significant differences in branching density in MG of peripubertal female Sprague Dawley rats that had been exposed to vehicle or a potent estrogen. These data suggest the Sholl analysis can be an effective tool for quantitatively measuring an important characteristic of MG development and for examining associations between MG growth and density and adverse effects in the breast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Stanko
- National Toxicology Program Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | | | - Suzanne E Fenton
- National Toxicology Program Laboratory, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States.
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9
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Zhuo S, Chen J. Stromal alterations as quantitative optical biomarkers of epithelial tumor progression. SCANNING 2014; 36:279-285. [PMID: 24347227 DOI: 10.1002/sca.21129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Stroma plays an important role during epithelial tumor progression. Probing stroma alteration may become an intrinsic indicator for evaluating epithelial tumor progression. In this review, we summarize our recent works on stromal alterations as quantitative optical biomarkers of epithelial tumor progression by use of nonlinear optical microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuangmu Zhuo
- Institute of Laser and Optoelectronics Technology, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine of Ministry of Education, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, 350007, China
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