Potential link between caffeine consumption and pediatric depression: A case-control study

Caffeine intake is associated with less severe depressive symptoms in noncancer populations: an analysis based on NHANES 2007-2016

Depression and cancer are both prevalent diseases worldwide. Numerous cancer patients experience psychological illnesses, especially depression, following a malignancy's dismal prognosis. Although some research has suggested that caffeine may be protective against depressive symptoms, it is still unclear how caffeine and cancer patients are related. Thus, we hypothesized that moderate daily caffeine intake may reduce the risk of depression in both the cancer and noncancer populations. Data were extracted and combined from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2007 to 2016. After controlling for potential confounding factors, interaction effects analysis was used to clarify the interaction between caffeine and cancer on depressive symptoms. Linear regression analysis and restricted cubic splines were used to further analyze the relationship between caffeine and depression in cancer and noncancer populations. A total of 24,145 participants were included in the analysis. In the noncancer population, the quartile 3 group of caffeine intake showed a negative association between caffeine intake and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) scores (β = -0.23, 95% confidence interval, -0.45 to -0.01; P = .041). No association between caffeine intake and PHQ-9 scores was observed in the cancer population. In both cancer and noncancer populations, restricted cubic splines indicated a nonlinear trend between caffeine and PHQ-9 scores, with the lowest PHQ-9 scores when caffeine intake was 119.52 mg. In the noncancer population, moderate daily caffeine intake (quartile 3 group; range, 119.5-236.5 mg) was associated with reduced depressive symptoms, whereas in the cancer population, no association was found between caffeine intake and depression.

Associations between dietary intake, diet quality and depressive symptoms in youth: A systematic review of observational studies

Background: Depression is the third leading cause of worldwide disease burden among youth, and nutrition- and diet-related behaviors have been considered as an effective strategy for reducing the risk of depressive symptoms. This systematic review aims to examine associations between dietary intake and diet quality with depressive symptoms among youth. Methods: In this systematic review, a search of scientific articles published between 2000 and 2021 was performed in four databases (CINAHL, Embase, PsycInfo, and PubMed) according to the PRISMA checklist. After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, observational studies that focused on associations between micronutrient, macronutrient, food group intake, and diet quality and depressive symptoms among youth, ages 3 to 18, were selected for review. Results: Thirty-two articles met the review criteria. Dietary intake of magnesium, vitamin B12, fiber, fruits, vegetables, and fish were consistently inversely related to depressive symptoms. However, the evidence of associations between intake of vitamins B6, C, D, and E, iron, copper, zinc, omega-3 fatty acids, carbohydrate, and dietary fat and depressive symptoms was mixed. Dietary effects on decreased depressive symptoms were more pronounced in children than adolescents. Additionally, most studies failed to adjust for potential confounding variables. Conclusion: This review provides preliminary and comprehensive evidence for a relationship between dietary intake, diet quality, and depressive symptoms in youth. Although the results are heterogeneous and more research is needed, our findings indicate the importance of nutrition interventions for youth for decreasing depressive symptoms or for preventing further symptom exacerbation.

The association between Healthy Beverage Index and psychological disorders among overweight and obese women: a cross-sectional study

Background and aims

The Healthy Beverage Index (HBI) is a valuable technique to estimate the synergistic effects of overall beverage consumption. Several studies have evaluated the associations between HBI and beneficial changes in the health status. however, there is no study on the association between patterns of beverage consumption and mental health status. Therefore, this study sought to examine the association between HBI and psychological disorders among overweight and obese women.

Methods

199 overweight and obese women, between the ages of 18 and 55 y, were enrolled in this cross-sectional study in Tehran, Iran. To collect beverage dietary data, a validated semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was used. Furthermore, the DASS-21 questionnaire was used to assess psychological profile states.

Results

The association of total depression anxiety stress (DASS) score with healthy beverage index (HBI) tertiles in models was marginally significant (OR =: 0.78; 95% CI 0.30–2.02; P-value = 0.074; (OR = 0.77; 95% CI 0.28–2.16; P-value = 0.062), respectively. In terms of stress, anxiety, and depression, after adjusting for confounders, participants with higher HBI in the third tertile had lower odds of depression vs. the first tertile (OR = 0.99; 95% CI 0.35–2.81; P-trend = 0.040).

Conclusion

We demonstrate that the total DASS score was associated with HBI tertiles. We also found that participants with higher HBI had lower odds of depression. However, additional well-designed studies are needed to confirm the veracity of these findings.

Effects of black tea consumption and caffeine intake on depression risk in black tea consumers

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to compare black tea consumption and caffeine intake with depression status.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

This study was conducted on 491 adults (M:169, F:322). The average daily caffeine intake of individuals was calculated using the amounts of caffeinated beverages they consumed daily and the caffeine contents of these beverages. The participants' depression status was determined using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). All of the research data were evaluated using STATA.

RESULTS

According to BDI scores, 30.1% of participants had depression. Black tea was consumed by all of the participants and also had the highest consumption level of 620.1±90.4mL and the mean caffeine intake of the participants was 629.5±418.8 mg. Multivariate regression analyses showed that consuming more than 1 cup was protective against depression up to 4 cups. Moreover, a 450-600 mg caffeine intake also reduces the risk of depression than lower or higher intake levels.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that black tea consumption up to 4 cups and caffeine intake between 450-600 mg can help protect against depression. Further studies are needed to better understand the protective effects of black tea and caffeine on depression.

Caffeine Intake and Mental Health in College Students

Background The effect of caffeine on the human body, both short-term and long-term, has been studied in great depth, particularly its association with psychiatric disorders. This study aims to investigate whether there is a correlation between caffeine intake and anxiety and depression among college students. Methodology A survey was administered to college students at Florida State University. Data regarding participant characteristics and caffeine intake were collected. Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 scores were used to assess symptoms of anxiety and depression, respectively. Results A total of 114 participants were included in the survey, consisting mainly of women (94 [82.5%]) and junior-level students (37 [32.5%]). The main source of caffeine was coffee (64.0%), and the main reasons for caffeine intake were pleasure (43.9%) and to study outside of class (29.8%); however, no association was found between sex or grade point average and number of cups of caffeine consumed. Upper levels of education (super senior or fifth-year students), depressive symptoms (poor appetite, overeating, sleep disorders, depressed mood), and anxiety were statistically associated with greater caffeine intake (P < 0.05). Conclusions As caffeine is commonly consumed and our study showed that its intake was associated with depressive symptoms and higher levels of anxiety in college students, further studies are needed to determine a possible causality, so that measures may be taken to educate these students about alternative methods for increasing energy and alertness.

Caffeine Consumption in Children: Innocuous or Deleterious? A Systematic Review

Caffeine is the most consumed psychostimulant worldwide. Its use among children is controversial. Although it produces an increase in brain activity, it could hamper growth and development in young consumers. Therefore, the aim of this review was to recognize changes produced by caffeine in children under 12 years of age and to identify the relevant alterations and the conditions of their occurrence. A systematic review of the literature was carried out using PRISMA. Initially, 5468 articles were found from the EBSCO, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Clarivate Analytics databases. In this review, were retained 24 published articles that met the inclusion criteria. The results obtained showed that caffeine consumption hampers children's growth and development. In contrast, it supports the activation of the central nervous system and brain energy management.

Association of frequent intake of fast foods, energy drinks, or convenience food with atopic dermatitis in adolescents

PURPOSE

Specific food consumption, besides food allergy, may aggravate atopic dermatitis (AD). However, previous reports on the association between AD and food intake in adolescents are scarce. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between AD and specific food consumption frequency in adolescents.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis using data from the Korea Youth Risk Behavior Web-based Survey 2017 was performed. The frequency of food consumption in the recent-diagnosed AD group (AD diagnosed within 12 months) compared to those in the previous-diagnosed AD (AD diagnosed more than 12 months ago) or control group were investigated.

RESULTS

A total of 53,373 participants were eligible for this study. The weighted prevalence of the recent-diagnosed AD and the previous-diagnosed AD was 7.39% and 18.00%, respectively. When compared with subjects with the previous-diagnosed AD, those with the recent-diagnosed AD were significantly more likely to frequently consume fast foods (odds ratio OR 1.405; 95% CI 1.150-1.717), energy drinks (OR 1.457; 95% CI 1.175-1.807), or convenience food (OR 1.304; 95% CI 1.138-1.495). Patients of the recent-diagnosed AD were significantly more likely to frequently consume fast foods (OR 1.374; 95% CI 1.155-1.634) than the control group. The differences in the frequency of specific food consumption among groups were more pronounced in high school students than in middle school students.

CONCLUSIONS

Frequent intake of fast foods, energy drinks, and convenience food was related to the recent-diagnosed AD in adolescents. Prospective cohort and interventional studies are needed to identify causal relationships.

Inverse association between caffeine intake and depressive symptoms in US adults: data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2005-2006

The objective of this study was to examine the association between caffeine consumption and depressive symptoms. We used data from the 2005-06 National Health and Nutritional Examination Surveys (NHANES). A total of 4737 individuals aged ≥ 18 years who answered the caffeine intake and PHQ-9 questionnaires were selected for this study. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) with total scores between 0 and 27. Those with PHQ-9 total scores ≥ 10 were considered as having clinically relevant depression. To investigate the association of caffeine intake and PHQ-9 scores, a multiple logistic regression was used in different models. The overall weighted prevalence of depression was 5.5% (4.3% in men and 6.6% in women). After controlling for potential confounders (age, sex, family PIR, education, marital status, disease history, sleep disorders, thyroid problems, physical activity, social support, smoking, total energy, and cholesterol, retinol, vitamin A, beta-carotene, beta-criptoxanthin, vitamin B1, iron, and phosphorus levels), a significant nonlinear inverse association between caffeine consumption and PHQ-9 scores was observed. In conclusion, caffeine's psychostimulant properties appear to protect against depressive symptoms; however, additional prospective studies are required to ascertain whether or not caffeine consumption can lead to a decrease in depressive symptoms.

Exploring infant feeding practices: cross-sectional surveys of South Western Sydney, Singapore, and Ho Chi Minh City

BACKGROUND

Infant feeding practices are known to influence the child's long-term health. Studies have associated obesity and other diseases with reduced breastfeeding and early introduction of high calorie beverages (HCBs). The rising prevalence of obesity is already a problem in most developed countries, especially Australia, but cultural differences are influential. Our aim is to examine and compare infant feeding practices and educational levels of respondents through questionnaires in three culturally different sites: Campbelltown (South Western Sydney), Australia, Singapore and Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (HCMC).

METHODS

Consenting parents and carers (aged ≥18 years old) of at least one child (≤6 years old) were recruited from paediatric clinics in Campbelltown, Singapore and HCMC. Participants completed an infant feeding practices questionnaire regarding breastfeeding, beverage and solid initiation in addition to the parent's ethnicity, age, and educational level. Data was analysed quantitatively using SPSS.

RESULTS

Two hundred eighty-three participants were recruited across the three sites, HCMC (n = 84), Campbelltown (n = 108), and Singapore (n = 91). 237 (82.6%) children were breastfed but in all only 100 (60.2%) were exclusively breastfed for five months or more. There was a statistical difference in rates of breast feeding between each region. HCMC (n = 18, 21.4%) had the lowest, followed by Campbelltown (n = 35, 32.4%), and then Singapore (n = 47, 51.7%). There was also a difference in rates of introduction of HCBs by 3 years of age, with those in HCMC (n = 71, 84.5%) were higher than Campbelltown (n = 71, 65.8%) and Singapore (n = 48, 52.8%). The educational level of respondents was lower in Vietnam where only 46.4% (n = 39) had completed post-secondary education, compared to 75.0% (n = 81) in Campbelltown and 75.8% (n = 69) in Singapore.

CONCLUSIONS

Rates of breast feeding were inversely correlated with rates of introduction of HCB and positively related to educational achievement. Vietnam had lowest rates of breast feeding, higher rates of introduction of HCBs, and lower rates of education. Given rising rates of obesity, there is a need for more effective programmes to promote breast feeding and restrict false advertising of HCBs.

Clinical Phenotype of Depression Affects Interleukin-6 Synthesis

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is not a single disease, but a number of various ailments that form one entity. Psychomotor retardation, anhedonia, sleep disorders, an increased suicide risk, and anxiety are the main symptoms that often define the clinical diagnosis of depression. Interleukin-6 (IL-6), as one of the proinflammatory cytokines, seems to be overexpressed during certain mental disorders, including MDD. Overexpression of IL-6 in depression is thought to be a factor associated with bad prognosis and worse disease course. IL-6 may directly affect brain functioning and production of neurotransmitters; moreover, its concentration is correlated with certain clinical symptoms within the wide range of depressive symptomatology. Furthermore, there is a strong correlation between IL-6 synthesis and psychosomatic functioning of the patient. This article discusses potential sources and significance of IL-6 in the pathogenesis of depression.

Adolescent energy drink consumption: An Australian perspective

Caffeinated Energy Drinks (EDs) are not recommended for consumption by children, yet there is a lack of age-specific recommendations and restrictions on the marketing and sale of EDs. EDs are increasingly popular among adolescents despite growing evidence of their negative health effects. In the current study we examined ED consumption patterns among 399 Australian adolescents aged 12-18 years. Participants completed a self-report survey of consumption patterns, physiological symptoms, and awareness of current ED consumption guidelines. Results indicated that ED consumption was common among the sample; 56% reported lifetime ED consumption, with initial consumption at mean age 10 (SD = 2.97). Twenty-eight percent of the sample consumed EDs at least monthly, 36% had exceeded the recommended two standard EDs/day, and 56% of consumers had experienced negative physiological health effects following ED consumption. The maximum number of EDs/day considered appropriate for children, adolescents, and adults varied, indicating a lack of awareness of current consumption recommendations. These findings add to the growing body of international evidence of adolescent ED consumption, and the detrimental impact of EDs to adolescent health. Enforced regulation and restriction of EDs for children's and adolescents' consumption is urgently needed in addition to greater visibility of ED consumption recommendations.

Energy Drink and Coffee Consumption and Psychopathology Symptoms Among Early Adolescents: Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations

Background: Little is known about possible links between energy drink use and psychopathology among youth. This study examined cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between energy drink consumption and psychopathology among early adolescents. In addition, associations between psychopathology and coffee consumption were examined to assess whether findings were specific to energy drinks or also applied to another commonly used caffeinated beverage. Methods: One hundred forty-four youth who participated in the Camden Youth Development Study (72 males; mean age 11.9 at wave 1; 65% Hispanic, 30% African American) were assessed using self-report measures of frequency of energy drink and coffee consumption and depression, anxiety, conduct disorder (CD) symptoms, and teacher reports of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Youth (92%) were reassessed 16 months later. Results: Concurrently, energy drink and coffee consumption were associated with similar psychopathology symptoms; when the other beverage was adjusted for, energy drinks remained associated with CD and coffee remained associated with panic anxiety. Initial energy drink consumption predicted increasing ADHD and CD over time, though the association with CD dropped to a trend level of significance when coffee was adjusted for. Initial levels of hyperactive ADHD predicted increasing coffee consumption over time; this association remained when energy drinks were controlled. Social anxiety was associated with less increase in energy drink consumption over time, controlling for coffee. Conclusion: Energy drink and coffee consumption among early adolescents are concurrently associated with similar psychopathology symptoms. Longitudinally, the associations between these beverages and psychopathology differ, indicating that these substances have differing implications for development over time.

Age of first use of energy beverages predicts future maximal consumption among naval pilot and flight officer candidates

Background

Energy drinks are popular beverages that can have adverse long-term health effects when consumed by children and adolescents. This study sought to determine if the age of first energy drink use in a U.S. military population is predictive of the maximum number of energy drinks consumed during a single day and/or single occasion (operationally defined as a couple of hours; e.g., a night out, during studying or sport session).

Method

Student U.S. naval aviator and naval flight officers who reported past-year use of energy drinks (N = 239) were surveyed to determine various measures of energy drink consumption.

Results

Age of first consumption was predictive of the maximum number of energy drinks consumed during a single occasion within the past year. Within this sample, the age range between 13 and 16 years appeared to be a critical period with results indicating that people who began consuming energy drinks during this period were 4.88 times more likely to consume high quantities (four or more) of energy drinks during a single occasion when compared to those who started consuming energy drinks between the ages of 20-23. Likewise, persons who began to consume energy drinks between the ages of 13-16 are 2.48 times more likely to consume high quantities of energy drinks during a single occasion than those who started between the ages of 17-19. There was no difference between 17 and 19 year olds and 20-23 year olds. Age of first use was not correlated to daily average intake or daily maximal intake of energy drinks.

Conclusions

A lower age of first energy drink use suggests higher risk of single-occasion heavy episodic consumption in this military population. Researchers should further explore the relationship of early onset energy drink consumption and potential future health risks.

Effect of energy drink and caffeinated beverage consumption on sleep, mood, and performance in children and adolescents

The increasing availability of highly caffeinated beverages, including energy drinks, in the United States has resulted in a rise in consumption by children and adolescents. In addition, there is mounting evidence that these products are often consumed by youth for their perceived fatigue-mitigating and mood- or performance-enhancing effects. Although such perceptions by children and adolescents about the potential consequences of caffeine consumption are highly likely to influence decision making regarding the use of such products, there is still a relative paucity of studies that focus on the effect of caffeinated beverages on sleep, mood, and performance in the pediatric population. This review summarizes the following aspects of this topic, as derived from the information currently available: 1) the perception, among youth, of caffeine's risks and benefits and the sources of information about caffeine, particularly with regard to sleep, mood, and performance; 2) the bidirectional effect of caffeine on sleep in children and adolescents and the association of caffeine with other sleep-related practices, and 3) the evidence that supports caffeine as a performance and mood enhancer as well as a countermeasure to sleepiness in the pediatric population. Finally, gaps in knowledge are identified, and a direction for future research is outlined.

Breastfeeding and coffee consumption in children younger than 2 years in Boston, Massachusetts, USA

BACKGROUND

Although introduction of inappropriate foods and liquids in early childhood and their association with breastfeeding is commonly reported in US children, coffee use in very young US children and its association with breastfeeding is not.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine the proportion of 1- and 2-year-olds in an urban population consuming coffee, their rate of consumption, and predictors of consumption, including breastfeeding status.

METHODS

We used data from a prospective cohort study on infant weight gain and diet, and body mass index at age 2. We used bivariate analyses to examine variables associated with coffee consumption at 1 and 2 years and multivariate logistic regression to control for variables of interest.

RESULTS

This study included 315 mother-infant dyads. At 1 year, the rate of coffee consumption reported was 2.5%; at 2 years, it was 15.2% and average daily consumption was 1.09 oz (range, 0.01- 4.00 oz). The only characteristic associated with coffee consumption at 1 year was breastfeeding at 1 year (P = .0275), which did not remain significant after controlling for confounding variables. Variables significantly associated with coffee consumption at year 2 were lower maternal education (P = .0016), non-US maternal place of birth (P = .0015), maternal Hispanic ethnicity (P < .0001), infant female sex (P = .0495), and receiving any breast milk at 1 year of age (P = .0189). After multivariate logistic regression, maternal Hispanic ethnicity (P = .0139) and infant female sex (P = .0371) remained significant.

CONCLUSION

Coffee consumption is not uncommon among toddlers in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. After controlling for possible confounding factors, maternal ethnicity and infant sex were significantly associated with this practice.

Sweetened beverages, coffee, and tea and depression risk among older US adults

Sweetened beverages, coffee, and tea are the most consumed non-alcoholic beverages and may have important health consequences. We prospectively evaluated the consumption of various types of beverages assessed in 1995-1996 in relation to self-reported depression diagnosis after 2000 among 263,923 participants of the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were derived from multivariate logistic regressions. The OR (95% CI) comparing ≥4 cans/cups per day with none were 1.30 (95%CI: 1.17-1.44) for soft drinks, 1.38 (1.15-1.65) for fruit drinks, and 0.91 (0.84-0.98) for coffee (all P for trend<0.0001). Null associations were observed for iced-tea and hot tea. In stratified analyses by drinkers of primarily diet versus regular beverages, the ORs were 1.31 (1.16-1.47) for diet versus 1.22 (1.03-1.45) for regular soft drinks, 1.51 (1.18-1.92) for diet versus 1.08 (0.79-1.46) for regular fruit drinks, and 1.25 (1.10-1.41) for diet versus 0.94 (0.83-1.08) for regular sweetened iced-tea. Finally, compared to nondrinkers, drinking coffee or tea without any sweetener was associated with a lower risk for depression, adding artificial sweeteners, but not sugar or honey, was associated with higher risks. Frequent consumption of sweetened beverages, especially diet drinks, may increase depression risk among older adults, whereas coffee consumption may lower the risk.

Soft drinks consumption is associated with behavior problems in 5-year-olds

OBJECTIVE

To examine soda consumption and aggressive behaviors, attention problems, and withdrawal behavior among 5-year-old children.

STUDY DESIGN

The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study is a prospective birth cohort study that follows a sample of mother-child pairs from 20 large US cities. Mothers reported children's behaviors using the Child Behavior Checklist at age 5 years and were asked to report how many servings of soda the child drinks on a typical day.

RESULTS

In the sample of 2929 children, 52% were boys, 51% were African-American, 43% consumed at least one serving of soda per day, and 4% consumed 4 or more servings per day. In analyses adjusted for sociodemographic factors, consuming one (beta, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.1-1.4), 2 (beta, 1.8; 95% CI, 0.8-2.7), 3 (beta, 2.0; 95% CI, 0.6-3.4), or 4 or more (beta, 4.7; 95% CI, 3.2-6.2) servings was associated with a higher aggressive behavior score compared with consuming no soda. Furthermore, those who consumed 4 or more (beta, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.0-2.4) soda servings had higher scores on the attention problems subscale. Higher withdrawn behavior scores were noted among those consuming 2 (beta, 1.0; 95% CI, 0.3-1.8) or 4 or more (beta, 2.0; 95% CI, 0.8-3.1) soda servings compared with those who consumed no soda.

CONCLUSION

We note an association between soda consumption and negative behavior among very young children; future studies should explore potential mechanisms that could explain this association.

The suitability of caffeinated drinks for children: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials, observational studies and expert panel guidelines

BACKGROUND

The increased availability of caffeinated drinks raises questions about the level of caffeine that is appropriate for children, as well as the benefits and risks associated with their consumption.

METHODS

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, this systematic review evaluates evidence from randomised controlled trials investigating the effects of caffeine on cognition, behaviour, mood and exercise performance in children. Observational studies and expert panel guidelines are also discussed.

RESULTS

One hundred and nine studies were found, with 11 randomised controlled trials and 13 observational studies meeting the criteria. High caffeine intakes (e.g. >5 mg kg(-1) body weight day(-1)) were associated with an increased risk of anxiety and withdrawal symptoms. However, smaller amounts were not linked with such effects and may benefit cognitive function and sports performance based on adult studies. The evidence suggests that children and adolescents should limit daily caffeine consumption to 2.5 mg kg(-1) body weight day(-1), equating to one or two cups of tea or one small cup of coffee. Lower contributors of caffeine, such as tea, may be more appropriate for children because they contribute to daily fluid intakes and provide flavonoids. By contrast, caffeinated soft drinks may be less suitable options for children as a result of their acidity, higher caffeine content, presence of added sugar (in some cases) and absence of bioactive compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

More studies are needed to determine the intakes that represent a risk and whether there may be benefits for alertness and sports performance with moderate intakes of caffeine.