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Mak ADP, Leung ONW, Chou IWY, Wong SLY, Chu WCW, Yeung D, So SHW, Ma SL, Lam LCW, Leung CM, Lee S. White matter integrity in young medication-naïve bipolar II depressed adults. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1816. [PMID: 33469064 PMCID: PMC7815920 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81355-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It is unknown if young medication-naïve bipolar II (BPII) depressed patients have increased white matter (WM) disruptions. 27 each of young (average 23 years) and treatment-naïve BPII depressed, unipolar depressed (UD) patients and age–sex–education matched healthy controls (HC) underwent 3 T MRIs with diffusion tensor imaging. Diagnostic ratings included Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Disorders (SCID), Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS), Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) and Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A). Patients were clinically depressed (MADRS-BPII: 26.15 [SD9.25], UD: 25.56 [5.24], p = 0.86). Compared to UD, BPII had increased family bipolarity (BPII 13.6% vs UD 2.5%, p = 0.01, φc = 0.28), hypomanic symptoms (YMRS-BPII: 4.22 [4.24], UD: 1.33 [2], p = 0.02, d = 0.87), lifetime number of depressive episodes (BPII: 2.37 [1.23], UD: 1.44 [0.75], p = 0.02, d = 0.91), lifetime and current-year number of episodes (lifetime BPII: 50.85 [95.47], UD: 1.7 [1.03]; current-year BPII: 9.93 [16.29], UD: 1.11 [0.32], ps = 0.04, ds = 0.73–0.77) and longer illness duration (BPII: 4.96 years [3.96], UD: 2.99 [3.33], p = 0.15, d = 0.54). BPII showed no increased WM disruptions vs UD or HC in any of the 15 a priori WM tracts. UD had lower right superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) (temporal) axial diffusivity (AD) (1.14 vs 1.17 (BPII), 1.16 (HC); F = 6.93, 95% CI of\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${F}_{B}$$\end{document}FB: 0.00073, 5.22, ηp2 = 0.15). Principal component analysis followed by exploratory linear discriminant analysis showed that increased R-SLF (temporal) AD, YMRS and family bipolarity distinguished BPII from UD (81.5% sensitivity, 85.2% specificity) independent of episode number and frequency. Young, medication-naïve adults with BPII depression did not show the WM disruptions distinguishing more chronically ill BP patients from UD. These WM disruptions may therefore be partly attributable to illness chronicity. Longitudinal studies should examine the trajectory of WM changes in BPII and UD and predictive validity of these baseline clinical and imaging parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Dun Ping Mak
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China.
| | - Owen Ngo Wang Leung
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Idy Wing Yi Chou
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Sheila Lok Yiu Wong
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Winnie Chiu-Wing Chu
- Department of Imaging and Interventional Radiology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - David Yeung
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Prince of Wales Hospital, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Suzanne Ho-Wai So
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Suk Ling Ma
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Linda Chiu Wah Lam
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Chi Ming Leung
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
| | - Sing Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, G/F Multicentre, Tai Po Hospital, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, Hong Kong, SAR, China
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Fernandes HM, Cabral J, van Hartevelt TJ, Lord LD, Gleesborg C, Møller A, Deco G, Whybrow PC, Petrovic P, James AC, Kringelbach ML. Disrupted brain structural connectivity in Pediatric Bipolar Disorder with psychosis. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13638. [PMID: 31541155 PMCID: PMC6754428 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50093-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bipolar disorder (BD) has been linked to disrupted structural and functional connectivity between prefrontal networks and limbic brain regions. Studies of patients with pediatric bipolar disorder (PBD) can help elucidate the developmental origins of altered structural connectivity underlying BD and provide novel insights into the aetiology of BD. Here we compare the network properties of whole-brain structural connectomes of euthymic PBD patients with psychosis, a variant of PBD, and matched healthy controls. Our results show widespread changes in the structural connectivity of PBD patients with psychosis in both cortical and subcortical networks, notably affecting the orbitofrontal cortex, frontal gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus and basal ganglia. Graph theoretical analysis revealed that PBD connectomes have fewer hubs, weaker rich club organization, different modular fingerprint and inter-modular communication, compared to healthy participants. The relationship between network features and neurocognitive and psychotic scores was also assessed, revealing trends of association between patients’ IQ and affective psychotic symptoms with the local efficiency of the orbitofrontal cortex. Our findings reveal that PBD with psychosis is associated with significant widespread changes in structural network topology, thus strengthening the hypothesis of a reduced capacity for integrative processing of information across brain regions. Localised network changes involve core regions for emotional processing and regulation, as well as memory and executive function, some of which show trends of association with neurocognitive faculties and symptoms. Together, our findings provide the first comprehensive characterisation of the alterations in local and global structural brain connectivity and network topology, which may contribute to the deficits in cognition and emotion processing and regulation found in PBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrique M Fernandes
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. .,Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
| | - Joana Cabral
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Tim J van Hartevelt
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Carsten Gleesborg
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research (SDC), Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Arne Møller
- Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Gustavo Deco
- Theoretical and Computational Neuroscience Group, Center of Brain and Cognition, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain.,Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Peter C Whybrow
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Predrag Petrovic
- Cognitive Neurophysiology Research Group, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anthony C James
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Highfield Unit, Warneford Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Morten L Kringelbach
- Center for Music in the Brain (MIB), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Center of Functionally Integrative Neuroscience (CFIN), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
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Vai B, Bertocchi C, Benedetti F. Cortico-limbic connectivity as a possible biomarker for bipolar disorder: where are we now? Expert Rev Neurother 2019; 19:159-172. [PMID: 30599797 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2019.1562338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The fronto-limbic network has been suggested as a key circuitry in the pathophysiology and maintenance of bipolar disorder. In the past decade, a disrupted connectivity within prefrontal-limbic structures was identified as a promising candidate biomarker for the disorder. Areas Covered: In this review, the authors examine current literature in terms of the structural, functional and effective connectivity in bipolar disorder, integrating recent findings of imaging genetics and machine learning. This paper profiles the current knowledge and identifies future perspectives to provide reliable and usable neuroimaging biomarkers for bipolar psychopathology in clinical practice. Expert Opinion: The replication and the translation of acquired knowledge into useful and usable tools represents one of the current greatest challenges in biomarker research applied to psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedetta Vai
- a Psychiatry & Clinical Psychobiology , Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele , Milano , Italy.,b University Vita-Salute San Raffaele , Milano , Italy
| | - Carlotta Bertocchi
- a Psychiatry & Clinical Psychobiology , Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele , Milano , Italy
| | - Francesco Benedetti
- a Psychiatry & Clinical Psychobiology , Division of Neuroscience, Scientific Institute Ospedale San Raffaele , Milano , Italy.,b University Vita-Salute San Raffaele , Milano , Italy
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Pezzoli S, Emsell L, Yip SW, Dima D, Giannakopoulos P, Zarei M, Tognin S, Arnone D, James A, Haller S, Frangou S, Goodwin GM, McDonald C, Kempton MJ. Meta-analysis of regional white matter volume in bipolar disorder with replication in an independent sample using coordinates, T-maps, and individual MRI data. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 84:162-170. [PMID: 29162519 PMCID: PMC5771263 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 10/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Converging evidence suggests that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with white matter (WM) abnormalities. Meta-analyses of voxel based morphometry (VBM) data is commonly performed using published coordinates, however this method is limited since it ignores non-significant data. Obtaining statistical maps from studies (T-maps) as well as raw MRI datasets increases accuracy and allows for a comprehensive analysis of clinical variables. We obtained coordinate data (7-studies), T-Maps (12-studies, including unpublished data) and raw MRI datasets (5-studies) and analysed the 24 studies using Seed-based d Mapping (SDM). A VBM analysis was conducted to verify the results in an independent sample. The meta-analysis revealed decreased WM volume in the posterior corpus callosum extending to WM in the posterior cingulate cortex. This region was significantly reduced in volume in BD patients in the independent dataset (p=0.003) but there was no association with clinical variables. We identified a robust WM volume abnormality in BD patients that may represent a trait marker of the disease and used a novel methodology to validate the findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Pezzoli
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical School, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK; Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Louise Emsell
- Translational MRI, Department of Imaging & Pathology, KU Leuven, Belgium; Department of Old Age Psychiatry, University Psychiatry Centre (UPC), KU Leuven, Belgium; Neuroimaging, Cognition & Genomics Centre (NICOG) & NCBES Galway Neuroscience Centre, College of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Sarah W Yip
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Danai Dima
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, UK; Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neurosciences, King's College London, UK
| | | | - Mojtaba Zarei
- National Brain Mapping Centre, Shahid Beheshti University, General and Medical Campus, Tehran, Iran
| | - Stefania Tognin
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Danilo Arnone
- Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK
| | - Anthony James
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sven Haller
- Affidea CDRC - Centre Diagnostique Radiologique de Carouge, Switzerland; Department of Surgical Sciences, Radiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; Department of Neuroradiology, University Hospital Freiburg, Germany; Faculty of Medicine of the University of Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Guy M Goodwin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Colm McDonald
- Neuroimaging, Cognition & Genomics Centre (NICOG) & NCBES Galway Neuroscience Centre, College of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Matthew J Kempton
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, UK; Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neurosciences, King's College London, UK.
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Preserved white matter in unmedicated pediatric bipolar disorder. Neurosci Lett 2014; 579:41-5. [PMID: 25017827 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.06.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/29/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
White matter (WM) abnormalities have been reported in bipolar disorder (BD) patients, as well as in their non-BD relatives, both children and adults. Although it is considered an emerging vulnerability marker for BD, there are no studies investigating WM alterations in pediatric unmedicated patients and young healthy offspring. In this study, we evaluated the presence of WM alterations in 18 pediatric, non medicated BD patients, as well as in 18 healthy offspring of BD type I parents and 20 healthy controls. 3T DT-MRI data were acquired and scans were processed with tract-based spatial statistics to provide measures of fractional anisotropy and diffusivity. We found no significant differences in WM microstructure between BD patients, healthy offspring and healthy controls. Previous studies that reported WM alterations investigated older subjects, either on medication (BD patients) or with psychiatric diagnoses other than BD (unaffected offspring). Our findings highlight the importance of the understanding of disease ontogeny and brain development dynamics in the search for early vulnerability markers for psychiatric disorders.
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Emsell L, Chaddock C, Forde N, Van Hecke W, Barker GJ, Leemans A, Sunaert S, Walshe M, Bramon E, Cannon D, Murray R, McDonald C. White matter microstructural abnormalities in families multiply affected with bipolar I disorder: a diffusion tensor tractography study. Psychol Med 2014; 44:2139-2150. [PMID: 24280191 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291713002845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND White matter (WM) abnormalities are proposed as potential endophenotypic markers of bipolar disorder (BD). In a diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) voxel-based analysis (VBA) study of families multiply affected with BD, we previously reported that widespread abnormalities of fractional anisotropy (FA) are associated with both BD and genetic liability for illness. In the present study, we further investigated the endophenotypic potential of WM abnormalities by applying DTI tractography to specifically investigate tracts implicated in the pathophysiology of BD. METHOD Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data were acquired from 19 patients with BD type I from multiply affected families, 21 of their unaffected first-degree relatives and 18 healthy volunteers. DTI tractography was used to identify the cingulum, uncinate fasciculus (UF), arcuate portion of the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), corpus callosum, and the anterior limb of the internal capsule (ALIC). Regression analyses were conducted to investigate the effect of participant group and genetic liability on FA and radial diffusivity (RD) in each tract. RESULTS We detected a significant effect of group on both FA and RD in the cingulum, SLF, callosal splenium and ILF driven by reduced FA and increased RD in patients compared to controls and relatives. Increasing genetic liability was associated with decreased FA and increased RD in the UF, and decreased FA in the SLF, among patients. CONCLUSIONS WM microstructural abnormalities in limbic, temporal and callosal pathways represent microstructural abnormalities associated with BD whereas alterations in the SLF and UF may represent potential markers of endophenotypic risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Emsell
- Translational MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven and Radiology,University Hospitals Leuven,Belgium
| | - C Chaddock
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - N Forde
- Clinical Science Institute,National University of Ireland,Galway,Ireland
| | | | - G J Barker
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - A Leemans
- Image Sciences Institute,University Medical Centre Utrecht,The Netherlands
| | - S Sunaert
- Translational MRI, Department of Imaging and Pathology, KU Leuven and Radiology,University Hospitals Leuven,Belgium
| | - M Walshe
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - E Bramon
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - D Cannon
- Clinical Science Institute,National University of Ireland,Galway,Ireland
| | - R Murray
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry,King's College London,UK
| | - C McDonald
- Clinical Science Institute,National University of Ireland,Galway,Ireland
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7
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Serafini G, Gonda X, Rihmer Z, Girardi P, Amore M. White matter abnormalities: Insights into the pathophysiology of major affective disorders. World J Radiol 2014; 6:223-229. [PMID: 24976925 PMCID: PMC4072809 DOI: 10.4329/wjr.v6.i6.223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2014] [Revised: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of white matter hyperintensities (WMHs) has been commonly associated with poor outcome in subjects with major affective disorders. Unfortunately, WMHs may be frequently confounded by the use of psychoactive medications and duration of illness. Although findings from the current literature are quite conflicting, we proposed that subjects with WMHs may be at higher suicidal risk when compared to other subgroups without. Based on the Fazekas modified scale, the severity of WMHs may serve as a trait marker of disease. Interestingly, the presence of WMHs may represent a neurobiological marker between the underlying vulnerability and clinical presentation of major affective disorders.
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8
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Vai B, Bollettini I, Benedetti F. Corticolimbic connectivity as a possible biomarker for bipolar disorder. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 14:631-50. [DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.915744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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9
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Mills JD, Kavanagh T, Kim WS, Chen BJ, Kawahara Y, Halliday GM, Janitz M. Unique transcriptome patterns of the white and grey matter corroborate structural and functional heterogeneity in the human frontal lobe. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78480. [PMID: 24194939 PMCID: PMC3808538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The human frontal lobe has undergone accelerated evolution, leading to the development of unique human features such as language and self-reflection. Cortical grey matter and underlying white matter reflect distinct cellular compositions in the frontal lobe. Surprisingly little is known about the transcriptomal landscape of these distinct regions. Here, for the first time, we report a detailed transcriptomal profile of the frontal grey (GM) and white matter (WM) with resolution to alternatively spliced isoforms obtained using the RNA-Seq approach. We observed more vigorous transcriptome activity in GM compared to WM, presumably because of the presence of cellular bodies of neurons in the GM and RNA associated with the nucleus and perinuclear space. Among the top differentially expressed genes, we also identified a number of long intergenic non-coding RNAs (lincRNAs), specifically expressed in white matter, such as LINC00162. Furthermore, along with confirmation of expression of known markers for neurons and oligodendrocytes, we identified a number of genes and splicing isoforms that are exclusively expressed in GM or WM with examples of GABRB2 and PAK2 transcripts, respectively. Pathway analysis identified distinct physiological and biochemical processes specific to grey and white matter samples with a prevalence of synaptic processes in GM and myelination regulation and axonogenesis in the WM. Our study also revealed that expression of many genes, for example, the GPR123, is characterized by isoform switching, depending in which structure the gene is expressed. Our report clearly shows that GM and WM have perhaps surprisingly divergent transcriptome profiles, reflecting distinct roles in brain physiology. Further, this study provides the first reference data set for a normal human frontal lobe, which will be useful in comparative transcriptome studies of cerebral disorders, in particular, neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D. Mills
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tomas Kavanagh
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Woojin S. Kim
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Bei Jun Chen
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Yoshihiro Kawahara
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Agrogenomics Research Center, Bioinformatics Research Unit, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Glenda M. Halliday
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Michael Janitz
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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