Comprehensive assessment of metabolic syndrome among rural Bangladeshi women

Hypertension prevalence and its trend in Bangladesh: evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Hypertension, itself being a major chronic condition, is one of the most significant risk factors for premature cardiovascular diseases and mortality. Hypertension is responsible for 13% of global deaths and three-quarters of the world’s hypertensive population reside in low- and middle-income countries. Bangladesh is one of those countries that experiencing an epidemiological transition from communicable to non-communicable diseases, a nutritional transition from a traditional diet to process and fast food, and an increase in a sedentary lifestyle, resulting in increased hypertension prevalence. We carried out a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify existing research on hypertension prevalence in Bangladesh, summarize findings and assess its temporal change.

Methods

We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE and PubMed and relevant references to identify studies on the prevalence of hypertension in Bangladesh. We used Random-effects meta-analysis to pool the prevalence estimates and performed subgroup analyses. We assessed heterogeneity, a trend in prevalence of hypertension and publication bias in selected studies.

Results

Our search initially identified 735 articles and after removing duplicates, reviewing titles and abstracts, and screening full texts, 53 studies were finally selected. The studies comprised 305,432 subjects and reported overall, gender-specific, geographical location specific and criteria specific prevalence of hypertension. We identified the range of hypertension prevalence is from 1.10% to 75.0% and the overall weighted pooled prevalence of hypertension is 20.0%. An extremely high heterogeneity (I² = 99.53%; Cochran Q-statistic p < 0.001) was observed in the prevalence of hypertension. Consequently, we performed subgroup analysis based on gender, age group and geographical location of the study participants, the cut-off level used to define hypertension, and the types of hypertension reported and presented our findings accordingly. An overall increasing trend of hypertension prevalence is also observed.

Conclusions

The prevalence of hypertension is high and rising in Bangladesh. Strategies targeting prevention are required to mitigate a further increase in the prevalence and reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with it.

Socio-economics status and metabolic syndrome: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The metabolic syndrome (MetS) is responsible for an increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and is associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Economic and social vulnerability is not an easy concept to grasp, but some studies investigate the association between MetS and socioeconomic and demographic factors, deprivation (more often correlations rather than causal one due to data). This work aims to assess the association between MetS and socio-economic gradient (SEG) in the literature by performing a meta-analysis.

DESIGN

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement for systematic reviews were followed.

SETTING

The raw list of studies extracted from PubMed as regard to the inclusion/exclusion criteria was imported in Word. Studies were filed with regard to our three definitions of SEG and their title.

PARTICIPANTS

Subgroup analysis were performed considering several definitions of Mets: NCEP-ATPIII and IDF2006.

RESULTS

The overall multivariable-adjusted OR showed that the risk of MetS was significantly increased in association with SEG The results of the subgroup analysis showed an increased risk of MetS in association with SEG when IDF definition was considered.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted interventions must be implemented in a specific way as prevention campaigns aimed at the general population are generally not adapted to this particular vulnerable population.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Bangladesh: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the studies

Background

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a cluster of health problems that set the stage for serious health conditions and places individuals at higher risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and stroke. The worldwide prevalence of MS in the adult population is on the rise and Bangladesh is no exception. According to some epidemiological study, MS is highly prevalent in Bangladesh and has increased dramatically in last few decades. To provide a clear picture of the current situation, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis with an objective to assess the prevalence of metabolic syndrome among the Bangladeshi population using data already published in the scientific literature.

Methods

We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE and PubMed and manually checked references of all identified relevant publications that described the prevalence of MS in Bangladesh. Random effects meta-analysis was used to pool the prevalence. Heterogeneity was explored using formal tests and subgroup analyses. Study quality and publication bias was also explored.

Results

Electronic and grey literature search retrieved 491 potentially relevant papers. After removing duplicates, reviewing titles and abstracts and screening full texts, 10 studies were finally selected. Most of the studies were conducted in rural populations and study participants were mostly females. The weighted pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome regardless of gender and criteria used to define metabolic syndrome, was 30.0% with high heterogeneity observed. Weighted pooled prevalence of metabolic syndrome is higher in females (32%) compared to males (25%) though not statistically significant (p = 0.434). Prevalence was highest (37%) when Modified NCEP ATP III criteria was used to define MS, while it was lowest (20%) when WHO criteria was used. In most cases, geographical area (urban/rural) was identified as a source of heterogeneity between the studies. Most of the studies met study quality assessment criteria’s except adequate sample size criteria and evidence of small study effect was also detected.

Conclusions

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome is high and rising in Bangladesh. Strategies aimed at primary prevention are required to mitigate a further increase in the prevalence and for the reduction of the morbidity and mortality associated with metabolic syndrome.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-018-5209-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome crossing 40% in Northern India: Time to act fast before it runs out of proportions

Background:

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a constellation of high blood pressure, hyperglycemia, obesity, and dyslipidemia. Its presence makes the patient more prone for cardiovascular events. Its prevalence has been documented as 11%–41%. The present study was undertaken to find out the demographic profile of the MetS in Kanpur region of northern India.

Materials and Methods:

This is a hospital based, cross-sectional study with adequate sample size.

Results:

Out of the randomly selected 420 patients (232 males and 188 females), 172 cases (61 males and 111 females) were found to have MeTS adopting the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. The overall prevalence of MeTS was found to be 40.9% (26.2% of total males and 59% of total females). Among the 172 cases of MeTS, females were more than males (64.5% vs. 35.4%). Maximum numbers of MeTS cases were in the age range of 50–59 years (55/172 = 31.9%) followed by 40–49 years (50/172 = 29%), >60 years (35/172 = 20.3%), 30–39 years (30/172 = 17.4%), and <30 years (2/172 = 1.1%). In the total study population of 420 cases, hyperglycemia was the most common (29.2%) and hyperglycemia, obesity, and high triglyceride were significantly higher prevalence in females. Among the participants of 111 cases of MeTS, hyperglycemia was the most common (71.5%) and high blood pressure, and low high density lipoprotein was significantly higher among males.

Conclusion:

The prevalence of MetS was more than 40% and its prevalence in <40 years age group is rapidly increasing. Its high time to be more active physically, before fatal cardiovascular events.

Increased waist circumference is the main driver for the development of the metabolic syndrome in South African Asian Indians

There is no current evidence available on the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) in South African Asian Indians, who are at high risk for cardiovascular disease. The aim of our study was to determine the prevalence of the MetS in this group, between males and females, as well as in the different age-groups, using the harmonised criteria and determined the main components driving the development of MetS.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study recruited randomly selected community participants between the ages of 15 and 65 years, in the community of Phoenix, in KwaZulu-Natal. All subjects had anthropometric variables and blood pressure measured, as well as blood drawn for blood glucose and lipids after overnight fasting. The MetS was determined using the harmonised criteria.

RESULTS

There were 1378 subjects sampled, mean age 45.5±13years and 1001 (72.6%) women. The age standardised prevalence for MetS was 39.9% and significantly higher (p<0.001) in women (49.9% versus 35.0% in men). The MetS was identified in 6.9% of young adults (15-24 years), with a four-fold increase in the 25-34year olds, and 60.1% in the 55-64year old group. Clustering of MetS components was present in all age-groups, but increased with advancing age. The independent contributors to the MetS were increased waist circumference, raised triglycerides and obesity. This study highlights the high prevalence of MetS in this ethnic group and the emergence of MetS in our younger subjects. Urgent population-based awareness campaigns, focussing on correcting unhealthy lifestyle behaviours should begin in childhood.

Metabolic syndrome and its risk factors among middle aged population of Iran, a population based study

AIMS

To determine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MS) and its risk factors in a middle-aged population in Iran.

METHODS

The sample was 5190 individuals aged 40-64 years participated in the first phase of the Shahroud eye cohort study. Prevalence of MS was determined in terms of the age and sex. Other variables were evaluated by using simple and multiple logistic regression methods.

RESULTS

The prevalence of MS was 10.88% in men, 13.03% in women and 12.14% in total. The prevalence proportion increased with increasing age. In multivariate logistic regression model, age (odds ratio (OR)=1.06), education (OR=0.98) and smoking (OR=0.50), had significant effects on MS. In this model, gender, marital status and economic status had no significant effect on MS. Higher prevalence of obesity and overweight in non-smokers (79.9%) compare to smokers (47.4%, P<0.001), indicated that the association of smoking and MS is confounded.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the low prevalence of MS in this study, older age was associated with increased risk of developing MS and higher education was associated with decreased this risk, therefore health education, changing the lifestyle, and taking greater attention in elderly is needed in order to prevent the MS and its complications.

Clustering of non-communicable diseases risk factors in Bangladeshi adults: An analysis of STEPS survey 2013

Background

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) have already become major killers in Bangladesh. Once NCDs are developed, they become chronic health and economic problems. Their primary prevention is linked to their common risk factors. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of NCD risk factors with a focus on their clustering in Bangladeshi adults.

Methods

This nationally representative study was done in 4,073 (1,812 men and 2,261 women) adults aged 25 years or older selected from rural and urban households. Multistage cluster sampling design was used. Selected variables were in line with steps I and II of WHO stepwise surveillance except alcohol.

Results

Forty-four percent used tobacco in any form. Almost 93 % did not consume adequate fruit and vegetables (5 servings or more). Thirty eight percent had low physical activity level (<600 MET-minutes/week). One-quarter (26 %) were overweight (body mass index > =25 kg/m^2). Twenty-one percent had hypertension (blood pressure > =140/90 mmHg or medication) and about 5 % had documented diabetes.

Upon examination of risk factor clustering, we observed that 38 % had at least three risk factors. After this threshold, clustering suddenly dropped down to a fairly low level. Using this threshold as a cut-off, clustering of risk factors was associated with age, male gender, urban residence, educational levels and quality of house in multivariate analysis.

Conclusion

Prevalence of NCD risk factors is fairly high in Bangladeshi adults with a tendency of clustering. If a risk factor such as hypertension is detected, a closer look for other risk factors has to be given in both at clinical and public health settings. Clustering raises risk by more than a summation of risk factors. Our findings, therefore, suggest that Bangladesh could expect a significant increase in NCDs in near future.

Childhood environment influences adrenarcheal timing among first-generation Bangladeshi migrant girls to the UK

Background

Adrenarche is a key early life event that marks middle childhood at approximately 7 years of age. Earlier work with British-Bangladeshi migrant women suggested that environmental conditions experienced before adrenarche influence adult reproductive function. We therefore investigated whether Bangladeshi children who migrate to the United Kingdom (UK) reach adrenarche earlier than non-migrants in Bangladesh or the United Kingdom.

Methods and Findings

Healthy girls, aged 5–16 years, were recruited from schools in Sylhet, Bangladesh and London, England comprising four groups: Sylhetis (n = 165), first-generation migrants to the United Kingdom (n = 42), second-generation girls (n = 162), and British girls of European origin (n = 50). Anthropometric measurements were collected together with questionnaire data for migration and socioeconomic characteristics. Saliva samples were assayed for dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEAS) using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Multiple linear regressions tested for group differences in anthropometric and socioeconomic variables and DHEAS levels. Median ages at adrenarche (DHEAS>400 pg/ml) were estimated using Weibull regression models for parametric survival analysis. Hazard ratios for reaching adrenarche earlier and 95% confidence intervals (CI), both unadjusted and adjusted for anthropometric variables, were estimated from the survival analyses. First-generation migrants had a median age at adrenarche (5.3 years) that was significantly earlier than Sylheti (7.2), second-generation (7.4), and European (7.1) girls. In univariate analyses, first-generation girls reached adrenarche significantly earlier than Sylhetis [HR (CI): 2.8 (1.4–5.5]. In multivariate models, first generation girls still reached adrenarche earlier than Sylhetis after adjusting for height [HR(CI): 1.9 (0.9–4.1)] and weight [HR(CI):1.7 (0.8–3.8)], but these results were attenuated.

Conclusions

We suggest that rapid catch-up growth experienced by first generation girls during early childhood may explain their advanced adrenarche. The environmental conditions leading to an earlier adrenarche, as well as the health implications of this early transition, merit further exploration.

Measurement of the levels of leptin, BDNF associated with polymorphisms LEP G2548A, LEPR Gln223Arg and BDNF Val66Met in Thai with metabolic syndrome

BACKGROUND

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of metabolic risk factors including dyslipidemia, impaired glucose tolerance, hypertension and central obesity. BDNF (Brain-derived neurotrophic factor) and leptin have been implied in the energy homeostasis. The purposes of this study were to examine concentrations of leptin, BDNF and biochemical parameters in metabolic-syndrome subjects and healthy controls, and also to search for associations of leptin gene (LEP) G2548A, leptin receptor gene (LEPR) Gln223Arg, and BDNF gene (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphisms with leptin levels, BDNF levels and metabolic syndrome among Thais.

METHODS

The case-controlled design was performed using 322 Thai volunteers (160 metabolic-syndrome subjects; 162 controls) during the health screening program. Metabolic syndrome was assessed by using the modified National Cholesterol Education Program, Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. The levels of leptin, BDNF, insulin, glucose and lipids were measured in samples. Genotyping of LEP G2548A, LEPR Gln223Arg and BDNF Val66Met was carried out using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique.

RESULTS

Serum leptin levels were significantly higher in the metabolic-syndrome group than the control group (p < 0.01), but the BDNF difference between them was not significant. Significant associations of LEPR Gln223Arg polymorphism were found with leptin and glucose levels (p < 0.05), after adjusting for potential covariates. This LEPR polymorphism in the metabolic-syndrome group was also significantly more frequent than in the control group (p < 0.05). However, other gene polymorphisms, LEP G2548A and BDNF Val66Met, showed no significant relationship with leptin levels, BDNF levels or metabolic syndrome.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest leptin levels are linked with metabolic syndrome. LEPR Gln223Arg polymorphism impacted leptin concentrations, and this gene polymorphism may influence susceptibility to metabolic syndrome among Thais.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and its components based on a harmonious definition among adults in Morocco

PURPOSE

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases that includes central obesity, hypertension, glucose intolerance, high triglyceride, and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Its prevalence is rapidly increasing worldwide. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and associated risk factors in a representative sample of Morocco adults using the 2009 joint interim statement definition.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We analyzed data of 820 patients aged 19 years and older. For metabolic syndrome diagnosis, we used the criteria of the recently published joint interim statement (2009).

RESULTS

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome is 35.73% among all adults, 18.56% among men, and 40.12% among women. Prevalence increased with age, peaking among those aged 50-59 years. The most common abnormality highlights abdominal obesity (49.15%). Also, half of patients have one or two risk factors for developing this syndrome.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome and associated risk factors is high among adults in Morocco, especially in women. The most prevalent component of metabolic syndrome in our population was abdominal obesity.

High prevalence of type 2 diabetes among the urban middle class in Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of type-2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome are increasing in the developing world; we assessed their prevalence among the urban middle class in Bangladesh.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional survey (n = 402), we randomly selected consenting adults (≥ 30 years) from a middle-income neighborhood in Dhaka. We assessed demography, lifestyle, and health status, measured physical indices and blood pressure and obtained blood samples. We evaluated two primary outcomes: (1) type-2 diabetes (fasting blood glucose ≥ 7.0 mmol/L or hemoglobin A1C ≥ 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) or diabetes medication use) and (2) insulin resistance (type-2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome using International Diabetes Federation criteria).

RESULTS

Mean age and Quételet's (body mass) index were 49.4 ± 12.6 years and 27.0 ± 5.1 kg/m²; 83% were married, 41% had ≥12 years of education, 47% were employed, 47% had a family history of diabetes. Thirty-five percent had type-2 diabetes and 45% had metabolic syndrome. In multivariate models older age and family history of diabetes were significantly associated with type-2 diabetes. Older age, female sex, overweight or obese, high wealth index and positive family history of diabetes were significantly associated with insulin resistance. Participants with type-2 diabetes or insulin resistance had significantly poorer physical health only if they had associated cardiovascular disease.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of type-2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome among the middle class in Dhaka is alarmingly high. Screening services should be implemented while researchers focus on strategies to lessen the incidence and morbidity associated with these conditions.

Higher gravidity and parity are associated with increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome among rural Bangladeshi women

Background

Parity increases the risk for coronary heart disease; however, its association with metabolic syndrome among women in low-income countries is still unknown.

Objective

This study investigates the association between parity or gravidity and metabolic syndrome in rural Bangladeshi women.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in 1,219 women aged 15–75 years from rural Bangladesh. Metabolic syndrome was defined according to the standard NCEP-ATP III criteria. Logistic regression was used to estimate the association between parity and gravidity and metabolic syndrome, with adjustment of potential confounding variables.

Results

Subjects with the highest gravidity (> = 4) had 1.66 times higher odds of having metabolic syndrome compared to those in the lowest gravidity (0-1) (P_trend = 0.02). A similar association was found between parity and metabolic syndrome (P_trend = 0.04), i.e., subjects in the highest parity (> = 4) had 1.65 times higher odds of having metabolic syndrome compared to those in the lowest parity (0-1). This positive association of parity and gravidity with metabolic syndrome was confined to pre-menopausal women (P_trend <0.01). Among the components of metabolic syndrome only high blood pressure showed positive association with parity and gravidity (P_trend = 0.01 and <0.001). Neither Parity nor gravidity was appreciably associated with other components of metabolic syndrome.

Conclusions

Multi parity or gravidity may be a risk factor for metabolic syndrome.

Effect of obesity on cardiometabolic risk factors in Asian Indians

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of overweight and obesity and their effects on cardiometabolic risk factors in a representative sample of urban population in Eastern India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A population-based survey was conducted among a randomly selected study population aged 20-80 years in an urban population of Berhampur city of Eastern India. Both anthropometric and biochemical information were collected, in addition to detailed information on classical cardiometabolic risk factors. Both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were performed. Obesity and overweight were defined based on the revised Asian-Pacific population criteria (Body mass index [BMI] ≥25 kg/m(2) and ≥23 kg/m(2), respectively).

RESULTS

The age-standardized rates of obesity and overweight are 36.8% (Males: 33.2%; Females: 40.8%) and 17.6%, (Males: 20.4%; Females: 15.1%) respectively, i.e., over half are either obese or overweight in this study population. Compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) standard cutoff criteria of overweight [BMI ≥25 kg/m(2)] and obesity [BMI >30 kg/m(2)], the cardiometabolic risk factors studied showed a significant incremental rise even with the lower cutoffs of the revised Asia-Pacific criteria. Older age, female gender, family history of diabetes, being hypertensive, hypertriglyceridemia, hypercholesterolemia, physical inactivity and middle to higher socioeconomic status significantly contributed to increased obesity risk among this urban population.

CONCLUSION

One-third of the urban populations are obese in Eastern India - an underestimate compared to the standard BMI cutoff criteria. Nevertheless, significant associations of the classical cardiometabolic risk factors with obesity were observed using the revised Asia-Pacific criteria clearly indicating a more aggressive cardiovascular prevention strategy for Asian Indians.

Metabolic syndrome among pre- and post-menopausal rural women in Bangladesh: result from a population-based study

BACKGROUND

Prevalence of non-communicable diseases are a challenging problems among menopausal women specially in a least developed country like Bangladesh, where majority of women suffering from at least one chronic diseases after menopausal age. So, the main objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and related risk factors in Bangladeshi pre- and post-menopausal women living in the rural setting.

METHODS

This study is based on a community based cross-sectional survey among 1802 rural women aged ≥15 years. Metabolic syndrome was defined according to the criteria of NCEP-ATP III. Logistic regression was used to estimate the association between menopausal status and metabolic syndrome and its components.

RESULTS

Metabolic syndrome was presented in 25.6% respondents and it was more prevalent among post-menopausal (39.3%) as compared to pre-menopausal (16.8%) women. Logistic regression analysis reveals that prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 1.78 times higher in post-menopausal women than pre-menopausal women (P = 0.001). Prevalence of high blood pressure, elevated fasting blood glucose, and high triglyceride were significantly higher in post-menopausal women than pre-menopausal women (P < 0.05). However, prevalence of low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was significantly lower in post-menopausal women than pre-menopausal women (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Metabolic syndrome seems to be a major health problem among post-menopausal women in many developing countries like Bangladesh and proper policy emphasis should be given on its prevention and control.

Disruption of components of vascular endothelial growth factor angiogenic signalling system in metabolic syndrome. Findings from a study conducted in rural Bangladeshi women

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with impaired angiogenesis, a process that is chiefly regulated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) upon binding to its specific receptors, VEGF-R1 and VEGF-R2. The purpose of the present study was to assess trends or patterns in plasma levels of VEGF and its soluble receptors in subjects with (MetS) or without (non-MetS) MetS; and further examine their association with clinical or metabolic parameters using a subpopulation of South Asian country. A total of 1,802 rural Bangladeshi women aged ≥15 years were studied using a population-based cross-sectional survey. Plasma levels of VEGF were found to be significantly increased (MetS vs. non-MetS: 483.9 vs. 386.9, p<0.001), whereas, the soluble forms of VEGF receptors, sVEGF-R1 and sVEGF-R2, were significantly decreased in subjects with Mets (sVEGF-R1, MetS vs. non-MetS: 512.5 vs. 631.3, p<0.001; sVEGF-R2, MetS vs. non-MetS: 9,302.8 vs. 9,787.4, p=0.004). After adjustment for age and all potential variables, multiple regression analysis revealed that plasma levels of VEGF had significant positive association with blood glucose (p = 0.019) and body mass index (p = 0.007). We also found that mean plasma levels of VEGF increased in direct proportion to levels of MetS components. The present study is the first ever to demonstrate a positive association between trends in levels of plasma VEGF and MetS using a large sample size from South Asia. The association between plasma VEGF and MetS needs further investigations in order to clearly decipher the clinical predictive value and accuracy of plasma VEGF in MetS.

Association of age at menarche with metabolic syndrome and its components in rural Bangladeshi women

BACKGROUND

Early age at menarche is associated with increased risk of metabolic syndrome in both China and the West. However, little is known about the impact of age at menarche and metabolic syndrome in South Asian women, including those from low-income country, where age at menarche is also falling. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether age at menarche is inversely associated with metabolic syndrome in Bangladeshi women, who are mostly poor and have limited access to and or poor health care facilities.

METHODS

This community-based cross-sectional study was performed using 1423 women aged between 15-75 years from rural Bangladesh in 2009 and 2010. Metabolic syndrome was defined according to standard NCEP-ATP III criteria. Logistic regression was used to estimate the association between age at menarche and metabolic syndrome, with adjustment of potential confounding variables, including age, education, marital status, tobacco users, use of contraceptives and number of pregnancies.

RESULTS

Early onset of menarche (<12 years) as compared to late onset (>13 years) was found to be associated with a higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome (odds ratio=1.55; 95 % confidence interval =1.05-2.30). Age at onset of menarche was also inversely associated with prevalence of high triglycerides (P for trend <0.01) and low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P for trend = 0.01), but positively associated with prevalence of high fasting blood glucose (P for trend =0.02). However, no significant association was found between age at menarche, high blood pressure and elevated waist circumference.

CONCLUSION

Early onset of menarche might promote or trigger development of metabolic syndrome. Thus, knowledge of the history of age at onset of menarche may be critical in identifying women at risk of developing metabolic syndrome and those likely to benefit the most from early interventions.

Prevalence and risk factors for metabolic syndrome in Asian Indians: A community study from urban Eastern India

OBJECTIVES

To determine the prevalence of metabolic syndrome and to identify predictors for the same, specific to an underdeveloped urban locale of Eastern India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

STUDY DESIGN

Population-based cross-sectional study, with multistage random sampling technique.

SETTING

Urban city-dwellers in Orissa one of the poorest states of Eastern India bordering a prosperous state of Andhra Pradesh of Southern India.

PARTICIPANTS

1178 adults of age 20-80 years randomly selected from 37 electoral wards of the urban city. Definition of Metabolic Syndrome: We followed a unified definition of the metabolic syndrome by joint interim statement of five major scientific organizations - the International Diabetes Federation, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, the American Heart Association, the World Heart Federation, the International Atherosclerosis Society, and the International Association of the Study of Obesity. Individuals who meet at least three of five clinical criteria of abdominal obesity, hypertriglyceredimia, low HDL, hypertension, and hyperglycemia are diagnosed as having the condition; presence of none of these criteria is mandatory. Explicit cut points are defined for all criteria, except elevated waist circumference, which must rely on population and country-specific definitions.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Prevalence and significant predictors of metabolic syndrome.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Both descriptive and multivariable logistic regression analyses.

RESULTS

Age-standardized prevalence rates of metabolic syndrome were 33.5% overall, 24.9 % in males and 42.3% in females. Older age, female gender, general obesity, inadequate fruit intake, hypercholesterolemia, and middle-to-high socioeconomic status significantly contributed to increased risk of metabolic syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Metabolic syndrome is a significant public health problem even in one of the poorest states of India that needs to be tackled with proven strategies.