The effect of household heads training on long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets utilization: a cluster randomized controlled trial in Ethiopia

Prevention of malaria in pregnancy through health education intervention programs on insecticide-treated nets use: a systematic review

Malaria is a widespread and prevalent disease that affects human population globally, particularly in tropical countries. Malaria is a major health issue in sub-Saharan Africa and it contributes to morbidity and mortality among individuals in Africa. Pregnant women have been also reported as high risk of people been infected with malaria. This review attempted to evaluate the various methods used for health education programs and the effectiveness of the programs in improving ITNs among pregnant women.Methods The search involved various databases; EBCOHOST, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Cochrane library, ScienceDirect, PubMed, SAGE, Sringer link, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library. It was limited to full text research articles that report intervention studies, written in English Language, published between 2003 to 2022. The key words were "malaria", "malaria prevention", "health education", "insecticide-treated nets", "utilization", "pregnant women".Results A total of eleven articles met the inclusion criteria and included in the review. Six studies reported randomized controlled trials (RCTs) while five reported non-randomized controlled trials (NRCT).Conclusions There are evidences from the results which showed that health education programs were improved among pregnant women due to the use of ITNs and LLINS utilization. Furthermore, additional interventions directed at significant others need to be implemented, considering their important role in determining pregnant women's use of ITNs.

Predictors of knowledge and use of long-lasting insecticidal nets for the prevention of malaria among the pregnant women in Pakistan

Background

Malaria is endemic to Pakistan with high prevalence among pregnant women and linked with maternal anaemia, intrauterine growth retardation, preterm birth, and low birth weight. The use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) is a proven and cost-effective intervention preventing malaria among pregnant women. The present study aimed to explore predictors of knowledge and use of LLINs among pregnant women in Pakistan.

Methods

This was part of a quasi-experimental study of 200 pregnant women conducted in a rural district of Sindh province in Pakistan. Data were collected using Malaria Indicator Survey questionnaires developed by Roll Back Malaria Partnership to end Malaria Monitoring and Evaluation Reference Group. Pregnant women and mothers with newborns of six months of age were interviewed in their homes.

Results

The age of the women was from 18 to 45, two thirds of the respondents (72.5%) were uneducated and married (77%). Majority (92%) of the women had received antenatal care during pregnancy, and 29.5% women had received counseling on malaria during their antenatal care visits. Multiple linear regression showed that the type of latrine was the most significant (β = 0.285, p < 0.001) determinant of knowledge about malaria among pregnant women followed by the death of a newborn (β = 0.271, p < 0.001). The use of mobile phone was the most significant (β = 0.247, p < 0.001) predictor of usage of LLINs among pregnant women followed by the death of a newborn (β = 0.232, p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Maternal education, type of latrine, use of mobile phone, malaria during previous pregnancy and newborn death were strong predictors of knowledge and use of LLINs in pregnant women in Pakistan. There is a need to scale-up programmes that aim to create awareness regarding malaria among pregnant women. Mobile phone technology can be used to implement awareness programmes focusing on malaria prevention among women.

Effectiveness of a health education intervention on the use of long-lasting insecticidal nets for the prevention of malaria in pregnant women of Pakistan: a quasi-experimental study

Background

About one quarter of pregnant women in the population of Pakistan are using long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets (LLINs) for prevention of malaria. Past research reported that adequate information and education would act as mediator to change behaviour among patients for prevention of malaria infection. The effective use of LLINs would contribute to reduction of disease burden caused by malaria. The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of health education on the adoption of LLINs among pregnant women living in Tharparkar, a remote district in Sindh Province, Pakistan.

Methods

A quasi-experimental study design with control and intervention groups was conducted with 200 pregnant women (100 in each group). Women in the intervention group were provided with health education sessions on malaria for 12 weeks, while those in the control group obtained routine information from lady health workers (LHWs). Pre- and post-intervention assessment was done of knowledge about malaria and use of LLIN, which was statistically analysed using descriptive statistics and difference in difference (DID) multivariable regression analysis to test effectiveness of the intervention.

Results

Baseline was conducted with 200 pregnant women. Demographic characteristics were similar in both groups with slight differences in age, education, income, type of latrine, and source of drinking water. There were no significant differences between mean knowledge and use of LLINs scores between groups at baseline. However, the estimated DID value after the intervention was 4.170 (p < 0.01) and represents an increase in scores of knowledge in the intervention group compared to control. Similarly DID value of 3.360 (p < 0.05) showed an increase in use of LLINs score after the intervention which was significant, showing that the intervention had a positive effect.

Conclusions

Results proved that health education could be an effective intervention for improving knowledge and usage of LLINs among pregnant women for the prevention of malaria. Such educational interventions have a positive potential to be implemented at larger scale by incorporating them into routine health sessions provided by health workers.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices about malaria in Cabo Verde: a country in the pre-elimination context

Background

Malaria in Cape Verde is unstable, with a sporadic and seasonal transmission of low endemicity. In this sense, the community perceptions regarding malaria transmission, their attitudes and practices against the disease are very important to understand and to better develop the best strategical policies to achieve malaria elimination goal. This study aim to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of Cape Verdean population about malaria, a country in the elimination step of disease.

Methods

A cross-sectional malaria KAP Survey was performed at the household level. A structured open questionnaire was developed and applied to residents of randomly selected households from 5 islands and 15 municipalities in Cape Verde. Correlation analyses were performed using a logistic regression model to determine the factors that are associated with the complete knowledge of the population about malaria.

Results

A total of 1953 fully completed questionnaires were analysed, with majority of questionnaires administered in Santiago island (68.3%), mainly in the capital city of Praia, 38.43%. About 88% of the population knew the correct form of transmission, 96% had knowledge that the entire population is at risk of malaria and identified the main symptoms. Regarding the attitudes, 58% seek treatment atthe nearest health structure upon the apparition of the symptoms, 64% in the first 24 h and 88% within the first 48 h. More than 97% have heard about mosquito nets but only 19% used it. In practice, 53% use coils, 45% rely on household sprays and 43% have benefited from IRS. About 90% received information about malaria from media, mainly the TV and the radio (83 and 43%, respectively). In summary, 54% of the population has complete knowledge of the disease.

Conclusion

The population of Cape Verde has a high level of knowledge about malaria, including its transmission, main symptoms and preventive and control measures. However, some gaps and misunderstandings have been noticed and contribute to the insufficient community involvement in actions against malaria. Therefore, is necessary to increase the knowledge of the population, leading to their full ownership and participation in community actions to contribute to the malaria elimination in the country.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-7130-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Relationship between exposure to malaria and haemoglobin level of children 2-9 years old in low malaria transmission settings

In the context of reduced transmission of malaria, it is essential to examine the association between exposure to malaria and haemoglobin level. This study measured the Haemoglobin level of children 2-9 years of age and examined its association with malariometric indices. A cross sectional study was conducted, during June 2016, on 763 children 2-9 years old, recruited from ten sites representing different malaria transmission settings in Ethiopia. Haemoglobin concentration was determined using HemoCue analyzer. Malariometric indices (splenomegaly rate, parasite rate and serological marker) were measured. The overall prevalence of anaemia was 17.3% (95% CI: 14.6-19.9) in the study population. Mild, moderate and severe anaemia accounted for 7.3%, 7.2% and 2.8% respectively. Of the children with anaemia (132), only 7 (5.3%) had malaria parasitaemia. The prevalence of malaria parasitaemia was 3.6% (2/56), 9.1% (5/55) and 0.0% (0/21) among children with mild, moderate and severe anaemia, respectively. Malaria reactive antibody and anaemia co-occurred in 3.13% (21/672) of the samples. Seroprevalence and parasitaemia did not have significant association with anaemia (p>0.05). However, splenomegaly was significantly associated with increased risk of anaemia (AOR=14.93; p=0.001). Anaemia was significantly higher among children 2-4 years old (22.2%), and children living in households without any insecticide treated bed net (34.0%). The prevalence of anaemia was lower by 55.0% among children living in households with at least one net (AOR=0.45, 95% CI: 0.21-0.96). Repeated exposure to malaria infections (seropositive) and parasitaemia was less likely to contribute to development of anaemia among children 2-9 years in this study setting. Thus, in low malaria endemic settings, anaemia prevention and control program required to reconsider the historical evidence that suggests malaria is one of the major risk factor for anaemia.

Free mass distribution of long lasting insecticidal nets lead to high levels of LLIN access and use in Madagascar, 2010: A cross-sectional observational study

Background

Madagascar conducted the first two phases of a national free mass distribution campaign of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) during a political crisis in 2009 aiming to achieve coverage of two LLINs per household as part of the National Malaria Control Strategy. The campaign targeted households in 19 out of 91 total health districts.

Methods

A community-based cross-sectional household survey using a three-stage cluster sample design was conducted four months post campaign to assess LLIN ownership, access and use. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with household LLIN access and individual LLIN use.

Results

A total of 2211 households were surveyed representing 8867 people. At least one LLIN was present in 93.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 91.6–95.5%) of households and 74.8% (95% CI, 71.0–78.6%) owned at least two LLINs. Access measured as the proportion of the population that could potentially be covered by household-owned LLINs was 77.2% (77.2% (95% CI, 72.9–81.3%) and LLIN use by all individuals was 84.2% (95% CI, 81.2–87.2%). LLIN use was associated with knowledge of insecticide treated net use to prevent malaria (OR = 3.58, 95% CI, 1.85–6.94), household ownership of more LLINs (OR 2.82, 95% CI 1.85–4.3), presence of children under five (OR = 2.05, 95% CI, 1.67–2.51), having traveled to the distribution point and receiving information about hanging a bednet (OR = 1.56, 95% CI, 1.41–1.74), and having received a post-campaign visit by a community mobilizer (OR = 1.75, 95% CI, 1.26–2.43). Lower LLIN use was associated with increasing household size (OR = 0.81 95% CI 0.77–0.85) and number of sleeping spaces (OR = 0.55, 95% CI, 0.44–0.68).

Conclusions

A large scale free mass LLIN distribution campaign was feasible and effective at achieving high LLIN access and use in Madagascar. Campaign process indicators highlighted potential areas for strengthening implementation to optimize access and equity.

Malaria Related Perceptions, Care Seeking after Onset of Fever and Anti-Malarial Drug Use in Malaria Endemic Settings of Southwest Ethiopia

Background

Prompt care seeking and appropriate use of anti-malarial drugs are critical components of malaria prevention and control. This study assessed malaria related perceptions, care seeking behavior and anti-malarial drug use in malaria endemic settings of Ethiopia.

Methods

Data were generated from a community based cross-sectional study conducted among 798 households during January 2014 as part of a larger household behavioral study in three malaria endemic districts of Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed using SPSS 17.0 and STATA 12.0.

Results

In this study, only 76.1% of the respondents associated malaria to mosquito bite, and incorrect beliefs and perceptions were noted. Despite moderate level of knowledge (estimated mean = 62.2, Std Err = 0.7, 95% CI: 60.6–63.8%), quite high favorable attitude (overall estimated mean = 91.5, Std Err = 0.6, 95% CI: 90.1–92.9%) were recorded towards malaria preventive measures. The mean attitude score for prompt care seeking, appropriate use of anti-malarial drugs, LLIN use and Indoor Residual Spray acceptance was 98.5 (Std Err = 0.4, 95% CI:97.5–99.4), 92.7 (Std Err = 0.6 95% CI:91.5–93.9), 88.8 (Std Err = 0.5, 95% CI:85.5–92.1) and 86.5 (Std Err = 1.2, 95% CI: 83.9–89.1), respectively. The prevalence of fever was 2.9% (116/4107) and of the study participants with fever, 71.9% (95% CI: 65.5–78.3%) sought care and all of them consulted formal health care system. However, only 17 (19.8%) sought care within 24 hours after onset of fever. The frequency of care seeking was higher (77.8%, n = 21/27) and more prompt (28.6%, 6/21) for children under five as compared to old age groups despite it was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). However, higher median time of seeking first care was observed among Muslims and people who did not attend school (p < 0.05). Of those who used anti-malarial drugs, 9.1% indicated that they used it inappropriately through saving and/or sharing. Irregular availability of anti-malarial drugs; irregular presence of frontline health workers and misconceptions were mentioned to contribute to delayed care seeking and irrational use of anti-malarial drugs.

Conclusions

Although care seeking behavior for febrile illness was quite high in this community, the habit of prompt care seeking was very limited. Thus, malaria prevention and control programs need to take into account local misconceptions and wrong perceptions, and health system factors to achieve optimal health seeking behavior in such malaria endemic settings.

A systematic review of knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about malaria among the South Asian population

BACKGROUND

Malaria is one of the deadliest mosquito-borne diseases in the world. More than 80% of the total populations are at risk of malaria in the 22 countries in Asia and the Pacific. South Asia alone is home to an estimated 1.4 billion people at risk of contracting malaria. Despite the remarkable progress in reducing the burden of malaria, evidence of the disease based on knowledge of the social and cultural contexts from a South Asian perspective is limited. Our objective was to understand the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about malaria in South Asian communities.

METHODOLOGY

We conducted a systematic literature review, searching six databases, between 1990 and 2015, focusing on knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about malaria in South Asia. Databases were searched using both 'free terms' and 'index terms' funnelled using Boolean operators and truncations. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were set, and included papers were scrutinised, employing a critical appraisal tool to find the best available evidences to support the study purpose.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Evidence from 32 articles (26 quantitative, four qualitative and two mixed methods). General knowledge and awareness of the disease, its transmission, and control and preventative measures were generally found to be lacking amongst both the general public and healthcare professionals. In addition, the study shows that poor socio-economic factors - including limited access to services due to poor/limited availability - and issues of affordability are considered as major risk factors.

CONCLUSION

This review suggests the importance of increasing health awareness, mobilising the local or community healthcare professionals, for prevention as well as early detection and effective treatment of malaria among people who are at risk. Malaria is also a disease associated with poverty and socio-cultural factors; therefore, strong political will, wider partnerships between health and non-health sectors, and strengthening health systems' technical and managerial capabilities at all level of primary healthcare systems, is inevitable.

Access to and use gaps of insecticide-treated nets among communities in Jimma Zone, southwestern Ethiopia: baseline results from malaria education interventions

Background

Malaria remains one of the major public health concerns in Ethiopia. Use of long- lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) is the country’s key malaria prevention and control strategy. This study intended to determine access to and usage gap of LLINs in malaria endemic settings in Southwestern Ethiopia.

Methods

Data were collected from 798 households in three districts (Mana, Kersa and Goma) of Jimma Zone, Southwestern Ethiopia, from December 2013 to January 2014. The data were analyzed using SPSS software package version 17.0. LLINs ownership, access and utilization gap were determined following the procedure developed by Survey and Indicator Task Force of the Roll Back Malaria Monitoring and Evaluation Reference Group. To complement the quantitative data, focus group discussions and interviews were conducted with community groups and key informants.

Results

In this study, 70.9 % (95 % CI: 67.8–74.1 %) of the surveyed households had at least one LLIN, and 63.0 % (95 % CI: 59.6–66.3 %) had sufficient LLINs for every member of the household. With respect to access, 51.9 % (95 % CI: 50.5–53.5 %) of the population had access to LLIN. Only, 38.4 % (95 % CI: 36.9–39.9 %) had slept under LLIN the previous night with females and children having priority to sleep under LLIN. This gave an overall use to access ratio of 70.2 % which resulted in behavior-driven failure of 29.8 %. Of the households with sufficient LLIN access, females (AOR = 1.52; 95 % CI:1.25–1.83; P = 0.001) and children aged 0–4 years (AOR = 2.28; 95 % CI:1.47–3.53;P = 0.001) were more likely to use LLINs than other household members. Shape of nets, sleeping arrangements, low risk perception, saving nets for future use, awareness and negligence, and perception of low efficacy of the LLINs contributed to behavioral failures.

Conclusions

LLIN use was hampered by lack of ownership and most importantly by behavioral driven gaps. This calls for designing and implementing appropriate behavioral change communication strategies to address behavioral failure. Improving access to LLINs also needs attention. Further, it requires moving beyond the traditional messaging approach for evidence based intervention to address specific needs and gaps.

Assuring access to topical mosquito repellents within an intensive distribution scheme: a case study in a remote province of Cambodia

Background

The public health value of a vector control tool depends on its epidemiological efficacy, but also on its ease of implementation. This study describes an intensive distribution scheme of a topical repellent implemented in 2012 and 2013 for the purpose of a cluster-randomized trial using the existing public health system. The trial aimed to assess the effectiveness of repellents in addition to long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLIN) and occurred in a province of Cambodia. Determinants for accessibility and consumption of this tool were explored.

Methods

135 individuals were appointed to be repellent distributors in 57 villages. A 2-weekly bottle exchange programme was organized. Distributors recorded information regarding the amount of bottles exchanged, repellent leftover, and reasons for not complying in household data sheets. Distributor-household contact rates and average 2-weekly consumption of repellent were calculated. Household and distributors characteristics were obtained using questionnaires, surveying 50 households per cluster and all distributors. Regression models were used to explore associations between contact and consumption rates and determinants such as socio-economic status. Operational costs for repellent and net distribution were obtained from the MalaResT project and the provincial health department.

Results

A fourfold increase in distributor-household contact rates was observed in 2013 compared to 2012 (median₂₀₁₂ = 20 %, median₂₀₁₃ = 88.9 %). Consumption rate tripled over the 2-year study period (median₂₀₁₂ = 20 %, median₂₀₁₃ = 57.89 %). Contact rates were found to associate with district, commune and knowing the distributor, while consumption was associated with district and household head occupation. The annual operational cost per capita for repellent distribution was 31 times more expensive than LLIN distribution (USD 4.33 versus USD 0.14).

Discussion

After the existing public health system was reinforced with programmatic and logistic support, an intense 2-weekly distribution scheme of a vector control tool over a 2-year period was operated successfully in the field. Lack of associations with socio-economic status suggested that the free distribution strategy resulted in equitable access to repellents. The operational costs for the repellent distribution and exchange programme were much higher than LLIN distribution. Such effort could only be justified in the context of malaria elimination where these interventions are expected to be limited in time.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-015-0960-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Malaria elimination in Haiti by the year 2020: an achievable goal?

Haiti and the Dominican Republic, which share the island of Hispaniola, are the last locations in the Caribbean where malaria still persists. Malaria is an important public health concern in Haiti with 17,094 reported cases in 2014. Further, on January 12, 2010, a record earthquake devastated densely populated areas in Haiti including many healthcare and laboratory facilities. Weakened infrastructure provided fertile reservoirs for uncontrolled transmission of infectious pathogens. This situation results in unique challenges for malaria epidemiology and elimination efforts. To help Haiti achieve its malaria elimination goals by year 2020, the Laboratoire National de Santé Publique and Henry Ford Health System, in close collaboration with the Direction d’Épidémiologie, de Laboratoire et de Recherches and the Programme National de Contrôle de la Malaria, hosted a scientific meeting on “Elimination Strategies for Malaria in Haiti” on January 29-30, 2015 at the National Laboratory in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. The meeting brought together laboratory personnel, researchers, clinicians, academics, public health professionals, and other stakeholders to discuss main stakes and perspectives on malaria elimination. Several themes and recommendations emerged during discussions at this meeting. First, more information and research on malaria transmission in Haiti are needed including information from active surveillance of cases and vectors. Second, many healthcare personnel need additional training and critical resources on how to properly identify malaria cases so as to improve accurate and timely case reporting. Third, it is necessary to continue studies genotyping strains of Plasmodium falciparum in different sites with active transmission to evaluate for drug resistance and impacts on health. Fourth, elimination strategies outlined in this report will continue to incorporate use of primaquine in addition to chloroquine and active surveillance of cases. Elimination of malaria in Haiti will require collaborative multidisciplinary approaches, sound strategic planning, and strong ownership of strategies by the Haiti Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population.

Strategies to increase the ownership and use of insecticide-treated bednets to prevent malaria

BACKGROUND

Malaria is a life-threatening parasitic disease and 40% of the world's population lives in areas affected by malaria. Insecticide-treated bednets (ITNs) effectively prevent malaria, however, barriers to their use have been identified.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the evidence on the effectiveness of available strategies that focus on delivery and appropriate use of ITNs.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the EPOC Register of Studies, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, HealthStar, CINAHL, PubMed, Science Citation Index, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, African Index Medicus (AIM), World Health Organization Library and Information Networks for Knowledge (WHOLIS), LILACS, Virtual Health Library (VHL), and the World Health Organization Library Information System (WHOLIS). Initial searches were conducted in May 2011, updated in March 2012 and February 2013. Authors contacted organizations and individuals involved in ITN distribution programs or research to identify current initiatives, studies or unpublished data, and searched reference lists of relevant reviews and studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials, non-randomized controlled trials, controlled before-after studies, and interrupted time series evaluating interventions focused on increasing ITN ownership and use were considered. The populations of interest were individuals in malaria-endemic areas.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently screened studies to be included. They extracted data from the selected studies and assessed the risk of bias. When consensus was not reached, any disagreements were discussed with a third author. The magnitude of effect and quality of evidence for each outcome was assessed.

MAIN RESULTS

Of the 3032 records identified, 10 studies were included in this review. Effect of ITN cost on ownership:Four studies including 4566 households and another study comprising 424 participants evaluated the effect of ITN price on ownership. These studies suggest that providing free ITNs probably increases ITN ownership when compared to subsidized ITNs or ITNs offered at full market price. Effect of ITN Cost on appropriate use of ITNs:Three studies including 9968 households and another study comprising 259 individuals found that there is probably little or no difference in the use of ITNs when they are provided free, compared to providing subsidized ITNs or ITNs offered at full market price. Education:Five studies, including 12,637 households, assessed educational interventions regarding ITN use and concluded that education may increase the number of adults and children using ITNs (sleeping under ITNs) compared to no education.One study, including 519 households, assessed the effects of providing an incentive (an undisclosed prize) to promote ITN ownership and use, and found that incentives probably lead to little or no difference in ownership or use of ITNs, compared to not receiving an incentive.None of the included studies reported on adverse effects.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Five studies examined the effect of price on ITN ownership and found moderate-certainty evidence that ownership was highest among the groups who received the ITN free versus those who purchased the ITN at any cost. In economic terms, this means that demand for ITNs is elastic with regard to price. However, once the ITN is supplied, the price paid for the ITN probably has little to no effect on its use; the four studies addressing this outcome failed to confirm the hypothesis that people who purchase nets will use them more than those who receive them at no cost. Educational interventions for promoting ITN use have an additional positive effect. However, the impact of different types or intensities of education is unknown.

The effect of single or repeated home visits on the hanging and use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets following a mass distribution campaign--a cluster randomized, controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Study objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of commonly used post-campaign hang-up visits on the hanging and use of campaign nets.

METHODS

A cluster-randomized trial was carried out in Uganda following an ITN distribution campaign. Five clusters (parishes, consisting of ∼11 villages each) were randomly selected for each of the three study arms with between 7,534 and 9,401 households per arm. Arm 1 received one hang-up visit, while Arm 2 received two visits by volunteers four and seven months after the campaign. Visits consisted of assistance hanging the net and education on net use. The control arm was only exposed to messages during the campaign itself. Three cross-sectional surveys with a two-stage cluster sampling design, representative of the study populations, were carried out to capture the two key outcome variables of net hanging and ITN use. Sample size was calculated to detect at least a 15 percentage-points change in net use, and was 1811 at endline. The analysis used an intention-to-treat approach.

FINDINGS

Both hanging and use of ITN increased during follow-up in a similar way in all three study arms. The proportion of the population using an ITN the previous night was 64.0% (95% CI 60.8, 67.2), for one additional visit, 68.2% (63.8, 72.2) for two visits and 64.0% (59.4, 68.5) for the control. The proportion of households with all campaign nets hanging increased from 55.7% to 72.5% at endline (p<0.0005 for trend), with no difference between study arms. Financial cost per household visited was estimated as USD 2.33 for the first visit and USD 2.24 for the second.

CONCLUSIONS

Behavior change communication provided during the campaign or through other channels was sufficient to induce high levels of net hanging and use and additional "hang-up" activities were not cost-effective.

Education attainment of head of households associated with insecticide-treated net utilization among five to nineteen-year old individuals: evidence from the malaria indicator survey 2010 in Zambia

Background

Education attainment may be a factor potentially influencing health-seeking behaviour of individuals. The effect of the level of education attainment of head of households of five to nineteen year old individuals in Zambia on ITN utilization was investigated.

Methods

Data stem from the 2010 Malaria Indicator Survey, which covered the entire Zambia, was used in this study. Of the total number of five to 19-year olds (n = 7,429), only 65% (4, 810) met the inclusion criteria for this study. The education level of the head of households was taken as a household variable and was categorized as "never been to school" for those who had never enrolled in school, Primary for Grades 1 to 7, Secondary for Grades 8 to 12 and Tertiary for beyond Grade 12. Multivariate Logistic regression was used to determine adjusted odds ratios that estimated the effect of education on ITN utilization after controlling for residence, sex, age group and other background factors.

Results

Overall (n = 4,810), 48.5% were males and 51.5% were females with the median age of 10 years and 11 years respectively. The ITN utilization among the five to 19 year old individuals from households with the head having Primary and Secondary education were not statistically significant from those who came from households where the head had never been to school. However, those who came from households with the head having tertiary education attainment were 1.7 times more likely to have slept under an ITN a night before the survey than those from households headed by individuals who never attended school or had primary education. (AOR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.19-2.41). Of the eligible population, 35% were excluded from the study due to incomplete records.

Conclusion

The findings suggest that tertiary education of the head of head of the household might be important in influencing health behaviour of the members of households. Therefore, health education messages focussing on strategies that aim to increase ITN utilization need to account for these differential variations associated with education attainment in communities.

Household training vs. mass campaigns: a better method of health communication for preventing malaria

Malaria is endemic in several states of India with high tribal population. Effective use of long-lasting insecticide treated bed nets (LLITNs) can reduce the burden of malaria in these settings. This study assessed the knowledge and behaviour regarding malaria in a tribal population and compared two health education strategies for enhancing effective utilisation of bed nets. A community-based intervention study was carried out among 218 households in two villages. One community received household level training on effective utilisation of LLITNs while the others received training in a mass campaign and outcomes were measured after 2 months. The study showed that the proportion utilising LLITNs was significantly higher among those receiving household level training as compared to those who received the mass campaign. Household level training appears to be a more effective form of health education for improving knowledge and promoting use of LLITNs in these isolated community groups.

Recalculating the net use gap: a multi-country comparison of ITN use versus ITN access

Use of insecticide treated nets is widely recognized as one of the main interventions to prevent malaria and high use rates are a central goal of malaria programs. The gap between household ownership of at least one ITN and population use of ITN has in the past been seen as evidence for failure to achieve appropriate net use. However, past studies compared net use with ownership of at least one net, not access to sufficient nets within households. This study recalculates the net use gap in recent large household surveys using the comparison indicator of ‘access to nets within the household’ as now recommended by Roll Back Malaria and the World Health Organization. Data from 41 Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) and Malaria Indicator Surveys (MIS) (2005–2012) in sub-Saharan Africa were used. For each dataset three indicators were calculated: population access to ITN, population use of ITN, and household ownership of at least one ITN. The ITN use gap was expressed as the difference between one and the ratio of use to access. The median proportion of users compared to those with access was high, at 82.1%. Even at population access levels below 50%, a median 80.6% used an ITN given they had access, and this rate increased to 91.2% for access rates above 50%. Linear regression of use against access showed that 89.0% of household members with access to nets used them the night before. These results clearly show that previous interpretations of the net use gap as a failure of behavioral change communication interventions were not justified and that the gap was instead primarily driven by lack of intra-household access. They also demonstrate the usefulness of the newly recommended ITN indicators; access to an ITN within the household provides a much more accurate comparison of ITN use than ownership.

Transmission of malaria in relation to distribution and coverage of long-lasting insecticidal nets in central Côte d'Ivoire

Background

The use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) is an effective malaria control strategy. However, there are challenges to achieve high coverage, such as distribution sustainability, and coverage keep-up. This study assessed the effect of LLINs coverage and contextual factors on entomological indicators of malaria in rural Côte d’Ivoire.

Methods

The study was carried out between July 2009 and May 2012 in three villages (Bozi, N’Dakonankro and Yoho) of central Côte d’Ivoire. In Bozi and Yoho, LLINs were distributed free of charge by the national malaria control programme in 2008. In Bozi, an additional distribution was carried out in May 2011. No specific interventions were done in N’Dakonankro. Entomological surveys were conducted in July 2009 and July 2010 (baseline), and in August and November 2011 and in February 2012. Frequency of circumsporozoite protein was determined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Regression models were employed to assess the impact of LLINs and changing patterns of irrigated rice farming on entomological parameters, and to determine associations with LLINs coverage and other contextual factors.

Results

In Bozi, high proportion of LLIN usage was observed (95-100%). After six months, 95% of LLINs were washed at least once and 79% were washed up to three times within one year. Anopheles gambiae was the predominant malaria vector (66.6% of all mosquitoes caught). From 2009 to 2012, in N’Dakonankro, the mean annual entomological inoculation rate (EIR) increased significantly from 116.8 infectious bites/human/year (ib/h/y) to 408.8 ib/h/y, while in the intervention villages, the EIR decreased significantly from 514.6 ib/h/y to 62.0 ib/h/y (Bozi) and from 83.9 ib/h/y to 25.5 ib/h/y (Yoho). The risk of an infectious bite over the three-year period was significantly lower in the intervention villages compared to the control village (p <0.001).

Conclusion

High coverage and sensitization of households to use LLINs through regular visits (particularly in Bozi) and abandoning irrigated rice farming (in Yoho) resulted in highly significant reductions of EIR. The national malaria control programme should consider household sensitization and education campaigns and other contextual factors to maximize the benefit of LLINs.

Strategic roles for behaviour change communication in a changing malaria landscape

Strong evidence suggests that quality strategic behaviour change communication (BCC) can improve malaria prevention and treatment behaviours. As progress is made towards malaria elimination, BCC becomes an even more important tool. BCC can be used 1) to reach populations who remain at risk as transmission dynamics change (e.g. mobile populations), 2) to facilitate identification of people with asymptomatic infections and their compliance with treatment, 3) to inform communities of the optimal timing of malaria control interventions, and 4) to explain changing diagnostic concerns (e.g. increasing false negatives as parasite density and multiplicity of infections fall) and treatment guidelines. The purpose of this commentary is to highlight the benefits and value for money that BCC brings to all aspects of malaria control, and to discuss areas of operations research needed as transmission dynamics change.

Development and evaluation of the Korean Health Literacy Instrument

The purpose of this study is to develop and validate the Korean Health Literacy Instrument, which measures the capacity to understand and use health-related information and make informed health decisions in Korean adults. In Phase 1, 33 initial items were generated to measure functional, interactive, and critical health literacy with prose, document, and numeracy tasks. These items included content from health promotion, disease management, and health navigation contexts. Content validity assessment was conducted by an expert panel, and 11 items were excluded. In Phase 2, the 22 remaining items were administered to a convenience sample of 292 adults from community and clinical settings. Exploratory factor and item difficulty and discrimination analyses were conducted and four items with low discrimination were deleted. In Phase 3, the remaining 18 items were administered to a convenience sample of 315 adults 40-64 years of age from community and clinical settings. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed to test the construct validity of the instrument. The Korean Health Literacy Instrument has a range of 0 to 18. The mean score in our validation study was 11.98. The instrument exhibited an internal consistency reliability coefficient of 0.82, and a test-retest reliability of 0.89. The instrument is suitable for screening individuals who have limited health literacy skills. Future studies are needed to further define the psychometric properties and predictive validity of the Korean Health Literacy Instrument.

Caregiver behavior change for child survival and development in low- and middle-income countries: an examination of the evidence

In June of 2012, representatives from more than 80 countries promulgated a Child Survival Call to Action, which called for reducing child mortality to 20 or fewer child deaths per 1,000 live births in every country by 2035. To address the problem of ending preventable child deaths, the U.S. Agency for International Development and the United Nations Children's Fund convened, on June 3-4, 2013, an Evidence Summit on Enhancing Child Survival and Development in Lower- and Middle-Income Countries by Achieving Population-Level Behavior Change. Six evidence review teams were established on different topics related to child survival and healthy development to identify the relevant evidence-based interventions and to prepare reports. This article was developed by the evidence review team responsible for identifying the research literature on caregiver change for child survival and development. This article is organized into childhood developmental periods and cross-cutting issues that affect child survival and healthy early development across all these periods. On the basis of this review, the authors present evidence-based recommendations for programs focused on caregivers to increase child survival and promote healthy development. Last, promising directions for future research to change caregivers' behaviors are given.