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Schneider P, Reece SE. The private life of malaria parasites: Strategies for sexual reproduction. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2021; 244:111375. [PMID: 34023299 PMCID: PMC8346949 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2021.111375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites exhibit a complex lifecycle, requiring extensive asexual replication in the liver and blood of the vertebrate host, and in the haemocoel of the insect vector. Yet, they must also undergo a single round of sexual reproduction, which occurs in the vector's midgut upon uptake of a blood meal. Sexual reproduction is obligate for infection of the vector and thus, is essential for onwards transmission to new hosts. Sex in malaria parasites involves several bottlenecks in parasite number, making the stages involved attractive targets for blocking disease transmission. Malaria parasites have evolved a suite of adaptations ("strategies") to maximise the success of sexual reproduction and transmission, which could undermine transmission-blocking interventions. Yet, understanding parasite strategies may also reveal novel opportunities for such interventions. Here, we outline how evolutionary and ecological theories, developed to explain reproductive strategies in multicellular taxa, can be applied to explain two reproductive strategies (conversion rate and sex ratio) expressed by malaria parasites within the vertebrate host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Schneider
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - Sarah E Reece
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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2
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Birget PLG, Schneider P, O’Donnell AJ, Reece SE. Adaptive phenotypic plasticity in malaria parasites is not constrained by previous responses to environmental change. EVOLUTION MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 2019:190-198. [PMID: 31660151 PMCID: PMC6805783 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eoz028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Background and objectives Phenotypic plasticity enables organisms to maximize fitness by matching trait values to different environments. Such adaptive phenotypic plasticity is exhibited by parasites, which experience frequent environmental changes during their life cycle, between individual hosts and also in within-host conditions experienced during infections. Life history theory predicts that the evolution of adaptive phenotypic plasticity is limited by costs and constraints, but tests of these concepts are scarce. Methodology Here, we induce phenotypic plasticity in malaria parasites to test whether mounting a plastic response to an environmental perturbation constrains subsequent plastic responses to further environmental change. Specifically, we perturb red blood cell resource availability to induce Plasmodium chabaudi to alter the trait values of several phenotypes underpinning within-host replication and between-host transmission. We then transfer parasites to unperturbed hosts to examine whether constraints govern the parasites’ ability to alter these phenotypes in response to their new in-host environment. Results Parasites alter trait values in response to the within-host environment they are exposed to. We do not detect negative consequences, for within-host replication or between-host transmission, of previously mounting a plastic response to a perturbed within-host environment. Conclusions and implications We suggest that malaria parasites are highly plastic and adapted to adjusting their phenotypes in response to the frequent changes in the within-host conditions they experience during infections. Our findings support the growing body of evidence that medical interventions, such as anti-parasite drugs, induce plastic responses that are adaptive and can facilitate the survival and potentially, drug resistance of parasites. Lay Summary Malaria parasites have evolved flexible strategies to cope with the changing conditions they experience during infections. We show that using such flexible strategies does not impact upon the parasites’ ability to grow (resulting in disease symptoms) or transmit (spreading the disease).
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip L G Birget
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Petra Schneider
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Aidan J O’Donnell
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Sarah E Reece
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
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3
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Evolutionary sex allocation theory explains sex ratios in natural Plasmodium falciparum infections. Int J Parasitol 2019; 49:601-604. [PMID: 31153899 PMCID: PMC7614805 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Malaria transmission is achieved by sexual stages, called gametocytes, and the proportion of gametocytes that are male versus female (sex ratio) influences transmission success. In malaria model systems, variation in gametocyte sex ratios can be explained by the predictions of evolutionary sex allocation theory. We test these predictions using natural Plasmodium falciparum infections. The predicted negative correlation between sex ratio and gametocyte density holds: the sex ratio increases when gametocyte densities decrease, and this is most apparent in single genotype infections and in the dry season. We do not observe higher gametocyte sex ratios in mixed compared with single genotype infections.
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4
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Henry NB, Sermé SS, Siciliano G, Sombié S, Diarra A, Sagnon N, Traoré AS, Sirima SB, Soulama I, Alano P. Biology of Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte sex ratio and implications in malaria parasite transmission. Malar J 2019; 18:70. [PMID: 30866941 PMCID: PMC6417185 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-019-2707-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
While significant advances have been made in understanding Plasmodium falciparum gametocyte biology and its relationship with malaria parasite transmission, the gametocyte sex ratio contribution to this process still remains a relevant research question. The present review discusses the biology of sex determination in P. falciparum, the underlying host and parasite factors, the sex specific susceptibility to drugs, the effect of sex ratio dynamics on malaria parasite transmission and the development of gametocyte sex specific diagnosis tools. Despite the inherent differences across several studies and approaches, the emerging picture highlights a potentially relevant contribution of the P. falciparum gametocyte sex ratio in the modulation of malaria parasite transmission. The increasing availability of molecular methods to measure gametocyte sex ratio will enable evaluation of important parameters, such as the impact of drug treatment on gametocyte sex ratio in vitro and in vivo as well as the changes of gametocyte sex ratios in natural infections, key steps towards elucidating how these parameters affect parasite infectiousness to the mosquito vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noëlie Béré Henry
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Samuel Sindié Sermé
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Giulia Siciliano
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Salif Sombié
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Amidou Diarra
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - N'fale Sagnon
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | | | - Sodiomon Bienvenu Sirima
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.,Groupe de Recherche Action Santé, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
| | - Issiaka Soulama
- Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
| | - Pietro Alano
- Dipartimento di Malattie Infettive, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy.
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5
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Adaptive plasticity in the gametocyte conversion rate of malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007371. [PMID: 30427935 PMCID: PMC6261640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexually reproducing parasites, such as malaria parasites, experience a trade-off between the allocation of resources to asexual replication and the production of sexual forms. Allocation by malaria parasites to sexual forms (the conversion rate) is variable but the evolutionary drivers of this plasticity are poorly understood. We use evolutionary theory for life histories to combine a mathematical model and experiments to reveal that parasites adjust conversion rate according to the dynamics of asexual densities in the blood of the host. Our model predicts the direction of change in conversion rates that returns the greatest fitness after perturbation of asexual densities by different doses of antimalarial drugs. The loss of a high proportion of asexuals is predicted to elicit increased conversion (terminal investment), while smaller losses are managed by reducing conversion (reproductive restraint) to facilitate within-host survival and future transmission. This non-linear pattern of allocation is consistent with adaptive reproductive strategies observed in multicellular organisms. We then empirically estimate conversion rates of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi in response to the killing of asexual stages by different doses of antimalarial drugs and forecast the short-term fitness consequences of these responses. Our data reveal the predicted non-linear pattern, and this is further supported by analyses of previous experiments that perturb asexual stage densities using drugs or within-host competition, across multiple parasite genotypes. Whilst conversion rates, across all datasets, are most strongly influenced by changes in asexual density, parasites also modulate conversion according to the availability of red blood cell resources. In summary, increasing conversion maximises short-term transmission and reducing conversion facilitates in-host survival and thus, future transmission. Understanding patterns of parasite allocation to reproduction matters because within-host replication is responsible for disease symptoms and between-host transmission determines disease spread. Malaria parasites in the host replicate asexually and, during each replication cycle, some asexuals transform into sexual stages that enable between-host transmission. It is not understood why the rate of conversion to sexual stages varies during infections despite its importance for the severity and spread of the disease. We combined a mathematical model and experiments to show that parasites adjust conversion rates depending on changes in their in-host population size. When population sizes plummet, between-host transmission is prioritised. However, smaller losses in number elicit reproductive restraint, which facilitates in-host survival and future transmission. We show that increased and decreased conversion in response to a range of in-host environments are actually part of one continuum: a sophisticated reproductive strategy similar to that of multicellular organisms.
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Laine AL, Mäkinen H. Life-history correlations change under coinfection leading to higher pathogen load. Evol Lett 2018; 2:126-133. [PMID: 30283670 PMCID: PMC6121793 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of a parasite strain to establish and grow on its host may be drastically altered by simultaneous infection by other parasite strains. However, we still lack an understanding of how life-history allocations may change under coinfection, although life-history correlations are a critical mechanism restricting the evolutionary potential and epidemiological dynamics of pathogens. Here, we study how life-history stages and their correlations change in the obligate fungal pathogen Podosphaera plantaginis under single infection and coinfection scenarios. We find increased pathogen loads under coinfection, but this is not explained by an enhanced performance at any of the life-history stages that constitute infections. Instead, we show that under coinfection the correlation between timing of sporulation and final pathogen load becomes positive. The changes in pathogen life-history allocations leading to more severe infections under coinfection can have far-reaching epidemiological consequences, as well as implication for our understanding of the evolution of virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Liisa Laine
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology University of Helsinki PO Box 65 (Viikinkaari 1) FI-00014 Finland
| | - Hannu Mäkinen
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology University of Helsinki PO Box 65 (Viikinkaari 1) FI-00014 Finland
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Birget PLG, Repton C, O'Donnell AJ, Schneider P, Reece SE. Phenotypic plasticity in reproductive effort: malaria parasites respond to resource availability. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20171229. [PMID: 28768894 PMCID: PMC5563815 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.1229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The trade-off between survival and reproduction is fundamental in the life history of all sexually reproducing organisms. This includes malaria parasites, which rely on asexually replicating stages for within-host survival and on sexually reproducing stages (gametocytes) for between-host transmission. The proportion of asexual stages that form gametocytes (reproductive effort) varies during infections-i.e. is phenotypically plastic-in response to changes in a number of within-host factors, including anaemia. However, how the density and age structure of red blood cell (RBC) resources shape plasticity in reproductive effort and impacts upon parasite fitness is controversial. Here, we examine how and why the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi alters its reproductive effort in response to experimental perturbations of the density and age structure of RBCs. We show that all four of the genotypes studied increase reproductive effort when the proportion of RBCs that are immature is elevated during host anaemia, and that the responses of the genotypes differ. We propose that anaemia (counterintuitively) generates a resource-rich environment in which parasites can afford to allocate more energy to reproduction (i.e. transmission) and that anaemia also exposes genetic variation to selection. From an applied perspective, adaptive plasticity in parasite reproductive effort could explain the maintenance of genetic variation for virulence and why anaemia is often observed as a risk factor for transmission in human infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip L G Birget
- Institutes of Evolutionary Biology, and Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Charlotte Repton
- Institutes of Evolutionary Biology, and Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Aidan J O'Donnell
- Institutes of Evolutionary Biology, and Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Petra Schneider
- Institutes of Evolutionary Biology, and Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Sarah E Reece
- Institutes of Evolutionary Biology, and Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
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8
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Jalovecka M, Bonsergent C, Hajdusek O, Kopacek P, Malandrin L. Stimulation and quantification of Babesia divergens gametocytogenesis. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:439. [PMID: 27502772 PMCID: PMC4977898 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1731-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Babesia divergens is the most common blood parasite in Europe causing babesiosis, a tick-borne malaria-like disease. Despite an increasing focus on B. divergens, especially regarding veterinary and human medicine, the sexual development of Babesia is poorly understood. Development of Babesia sexual stages in the host blood (gametocytes) plays a decisive role in parasite acquisition by the tick vector. However, the exact mechanism of gametocytogenesis is still unexplained. METHODS Babesia divergens gametocytes are characterized by expression of bdccp1, bdccp2 and bdccp3 genes. Using previously described sequences of bdccp1, bdccp2 and bdccp3, we have established a quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) assay for detection and assessment of the efficiency of B. divergens gametocytes production in bovine blood. We analysed fluctuations in expression of bdccp genes during cultivation in vitro, as well as in cultures treated with different drugs and stimuli. RESULTS We demonstrated that all B. divergens clonal lines tested, originally derived from naturally infected cows, exhibited sexual stages. Furthermore, sexual commitment was stimulated during continuous growth of the cultures, by addition of specific stress-inducing drugs or by alternating cultivation conditions. Expression of bdccp genes was greatly reduced or even lost after long-term cultivation, suggesting possible problems in the artificial infections of ticks in feeding assays in vitro. CONCLUSIONS Our research provides insight into sexual development of B. divergens and may facilitate the development of transmission models in vitro, enabling a more detailed understanding of Babesia-tick interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Jalovecka
- INRA, UMR1300 Biology, Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Animal Health, CS 40706, F-44307, Nantes, France. .,LUNAM University, Nantes-Atlantic College of Veterinary Medicine and Food Sciences and Engineering, UMR BioEpAR, F-44307, Nantes, France. .,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-370 05, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic. .,Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, CZ-370 05, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Claire Bonsergent
- INRA, UMR1300 Biology, Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Animal Health, CS 40706, F-44307, Nantes, France.,LUNAM University, Nantes-Atlantic College of Veterinary Medicine and Food Sciences and Engineering, UMR BioEpAR, F-44307, Nantes, France
| | - Ondrej Hajdusek
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-370 05, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kopacek
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-370 05, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Laurence Malandrin
- INRA, UMR1300 Biology, Epidemiology and Risk Analysis in Animal Health, CS 40706, F-44307, Nantes, France.,LUNAM University, Nantes-Atlantic College of Veterinary Medicine and Food Sciences and Engineering, UMR BioEpAR, F-44307, Nantes, France
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9
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Carter LM, Pollitt LC, Wilson LG, Reece SE. Ecological influences on the behaviour and fertility of malaria parasites. Malar J 2016; 15:220. [PMID: 27091194 PMCID: PMC4835847 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1271-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sexual reproduction in the mosquito is essential for the transmission of malaria parasites and a major target for transmission-blocking interventions. Male gametes need to locate and fertilize females in the challenging environment of the mosquito blood meal, but remarkably little is known about the ecology and behaviour of male gametes. Methods Here, a series of experiments explores how some aspects of the chemical and physical environment experienced during mating impacts upon the production, motility, and fertility of male gametes. Results and conclusions Specifically, the data confirm that: (a) rates of male gametogenesis vary when induced by the family of compounds (tryptophan metabolites) thought to trigger gamete differentiation in nature; and (b) complex relationships between gametogenesis and mating success exist across parasite species. In addition, the data reveal that (c) microparticles of the same size as red blood cells negatively affect mating success; and (d) instead of swimming in random directions, male gametes may be attracted by female gametes. Understanding the mating ecology of malaria parasites, may offer novel approaches for blocking transmission and explain adaptation to different species of mosquito vectors. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12936-016-1271-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Abstract
Malaria remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, despite decades of public health efforts. The recent commitment by many endemic countries to eliminate malaria marks a shift away from programs aimed at controlling disease burden towards one that emphasizes reducing transmission of the most virulent human malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Gametocytes, the only developmental stage of malaria parasites able to infect mosquitoes, have remained understudied, as they occur in low numbers, do not cause disease, and are difficult to detect in vivo by conventional methods. Here, we review the transmission biology of P. falciparum gametocytes, featuring important recent discoveries of genes affecting parasite commitment to gametocyte formation, microvesicles enabling parasites to communicate with each other, and the anatomical site where immature gametocytes develop. We propose potential parasite targets for future intervention and highlight remaining knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K. Nilsson
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Lauren M. Childs
- Centre for Communicable Disease Dynamics and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Caroline Buckee
- Centre for Communicable Disease Dynamics and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (CB); (MM)
| | - Matthias Marti
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (CB); (MM)
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Seco-Hidalgo V, Osuna A, Pablos LMD. To bet or not to bet: deciphering cell to cell variation in protozoan infections. Trends Parasitol 2015; 31:350-6. [PMID: 26070403 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 04/11/2015] [Accepted: 05/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Some of the most crucial phenotypic aspects of parasites, such as an antigen-coated surface, parasite sexual differentiation, virulence, and drug resistance, rely on adaptive plasticity and/or stochastic events. At a population level, cell to cell variability represents an avenue for rapid response to drastic changes in the environment. Single cell approaches can be used to unravel the different strategies used by parasites to survive in the context of regulated transcriptional control (apicomplexa) or in its absence (kinetoplastids).
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Seco-Hidalgo
- Biochemistry and Molecular Parasitology Research Group, Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva, Granada, Spain
| | - Antonio Osuna
- Biochemistry and Molecular Parasitology Research Group, Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva, Granada, Spain
| | - Luis Miguel De Pablos
- Biochemistry and Molecular Parasitology Research Group, Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Campus de Fuentenueva, Granada, Spain; Centre for Immunology and Infection (CII), Biology Department, University of York, York, UK.
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