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Murugan K, Panneerselvam C, Subramaniam J, Paulpandi M, Rajaganesh R, Vasanthakumaran M, Madhavan J, Shafi SS, Roni M, Portilla-Pulido JS, Mendez SC, Duque JE, Wang L, Aziz AT, Chandramohan B, Dinesh D, Piramanayagam S, Hwang JS. Synthesis of new series of quinoline derivatives with insecticidal effects on larval vectors of malaria and dengue diseases. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4765. [PMID: 35306526 PMCID: PMC8933857 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08397-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito borne diseases are on the rise because of their fast spread worldwide and the lack of effective treatments. Here we are focusing on the development of a novel anti-malarial and virucidal agent with biocidal effects also on its vectors. We have synthesized a new quinoline (4,7-dichloroquinoline) derivative which showed significant larvicidal and pupicidal properties against a malarial and a dengue vector and a lethal toxicity ranging from 4.408 µM/mL (first instar larvae) to 7.958 µM/mL (pupal populations) for Anopheles stephensi and 5.016 µM/mL (larva 1) to 10.669 µM/mL (pupae) for Aedes aegypti. In-vitro antiplasmodial efficacy of 4,7-dichloroquinoline revealed a significant growth inhibition of both sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum with IC50 values of 6.7 nM (CQ-s) and 8.5 nM (CQ-r). Chloroquine IC50 values, as control, were 23 nM (CQ-s), and 27.5 nM (CQ-r). In vivo antiplasmodial studies with P. falciparum infected mice showed an effect of 4,7-dichloroquinoline compared to chloroquine. The quinoline compound showed significant activity against the viral pathogen serotype 2 (DENV-2). In vitro conditions and the purified quinoline exhibited insignificant toxicity on the host system up to 100 µM/mL. Overall, 4,7-dichloroquinoline could provide a good anti-vectorial and anti-malarial agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kadarkarai Murugan
- University of Science & Technology, Techno City, Kiling Road, Baridua, Meghalaya, 793 101, India.
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India.
| | | | - Jayapal Subramaniam
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | - Manickam Paulpandi
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | - Rajapandian Rajaganesh
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | | | - Jagannathan Madhavan
- Department of Chemistry, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkadu, Vellore, 632 115, India
| | - S Syed Shafi
- Department of Chemistry, Thiruvalluvar University, Serkadu, Vellore, 632 115, India
| | - Mathath Roni
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | - Johan S Portilla-Pulido
- Grupo de Investigación en Bioquímica y Microbiología (GIBIM). Escuela de Química, Universidad Industrial de Santander, A.A. 678, Bucaramanga, Colombia
- Centro de Investigaciones en Enfermedades Tropicales-CINTROP, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Guatiguará Technology and Research Park, Km 2 Vía El Refugio, Piedecuesta, Santander, Colombia
| | - Stelia C Mendez
- Grupo de Investigación en Bioquímica y Microbiología (GIBIM). Escuela de Química, Universidad Industrial de Santander, A.A. 678, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Jonny E Duque
- Centro de Investigaciones en Enfermedades Tropicales-CINTROP, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Medicina, Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Guatiguará Technology and Research Park, Km 2 Vía El Refugio, Piedecuesta, Santander, Colombia
| | - Lan Wang
- School of Life Science, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, Shanxi, China
| | - Al Thabiani Aziz
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, 71491, Saudi Arabia
| | - Balamurugan Chandramohan
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | - Devakumar Dinesh
- Division of Entomology, Department of Zoology, School of Life Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | - Shanmughavel Piramanayagam
- Computational Biology Lab, Department of Bioinformatics, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, 641046, India
| | - Jiang-Shiou Hwang
- Institute of Marine Biology, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 20224, Taiwan.
- Center of Excellence for Ocean Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 20224, Taiwan.
- Center of Excellence for the Oceans, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, 20224, Taiwan.
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Endo T, Takemae H, Sharma I, Furuya T. Multipurpose Drugs Active Against Both Plasmodium spp. and Microorganisms: Potential Application for New Drug Development. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:797509. [PMID: 35004357 PMCID: PMC8740689 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.797509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria, a disease caused by the protozoan parasites Plasmodium spp., is still causing serious problems in endemic regions in the world. Although the WHO recommends artemisinin combination therapies for the treatment of malaria patients, the emergence of artemisinin-resistant parasites has become a serious issue and underscores the need for the development of new antimalarial drugs. On the other hand, new and re-emergences of infectious diseases, such as the influenza pandemic, Ebola virus disease, and COVID-19, are urging the world to develop effective chemotherapeutic agents against the causative viruses, which are not achieved to the desired level yet. In this review article, we describe existing drugs which are active against both Plasmodium spp. and microorganisms including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. We also focus on the current knowledge about the mechanism of actions of these drugs. Our major aims of this article are to describe examples of drugs that kill both Plasmodium parasites and other microbes and to provide valuable information to help find new ideas for developing novel drugs, rather than merely augmenting already existing drug repurposing efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuro Endo
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Takemae
- Center for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Prevention Research, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Indu Sharma
- Department of Biological Sciences, Hampton University, Hampton, VA, United States
| | - Tetsuya Furuya
- Laboratory of Veterinary Infectious Diseases, Cooperative Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
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3
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Pessanha de Carvalho L, Kreidenweiss A, Held J. Drug Repurposing: A Review of Old and New Antibiotics for the Treatment of Malaria: Identifying Antibiotics with a Fast Onset of Antiplasmodial Action. Molecules 2021; 26:2304. [PMID: 33921170 PMCID: PMC8071546 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is one of the most life-threatening infectious diseases and constitutes a major health problem, especially in Africa. Although artemisinin combination therapies remain efficacious to treat malaria, the emergence of resistant parasites emphasizes the urgent need of new alternative chemotherapies. One strategy is the repurposing of existing drugs. Herein, we reviewed the antimalarial effects of marketed antibiotics, and described in detail the fast-acting antibiotics that showed activity in nanomolar concentrations. Antibiotics have been used for prophylaxis and treatment of malaria for many years and are of particular interest because they might exert a different mode of action than current antimalarials, and can be used simultaneously to treat concomitant bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lais Pessanha de Carvalho
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany; (L.P.d.C.); (A.K.)
| | - Andrea Kreidenweiss
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany; (L.P.d.C.); (A.K.)
- Centre de Recherches Medicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné BP 242, Gabon
| | - Jana Held
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tuebingen, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany; (L.P.d.C.); (A.K.)
- Centre de Recherches Medicales de Lambaréné (CERMEL), Lambaréné BP 242, Gabon
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Targeting the apicoplast in malaria. Biochem Soc Trans 2019; 47:973-983. [PMID: 31383817 DOI: 10.1042/bst20170563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Malaria continues to be one of the leading causes of human mortality in the world, and the therapies available are insufficient for eradication. Severe malaria is caused by the apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium falciparum Apicomplexan parasites, including the Plasmodium spp., are descendants of photosynthetic algae, and therefore they possess an essential plastid organelle, named the apicoplast. Since humans and animals have no plastids, the apicoplast is an attractive target for drug development. Indeed, after its discovery, the apicoplast was found to host the target pathways of some known antimalarial drugs, which motivated efforts for further research into its biological functions and biogenesis. Initially, many apicoplast inhibitions were found to result in 'delayed death', whereby parasite killing is seen only at the end of one invasion-egress cycle. This slow action is not in line with the current standard for antimalarials, which seeded scepticism about the potential of compounds targeting apicoplast functions as good candidates for drug development. Intriguingly, recent evidence of apicoplast inhibitors causing rapid killing could put this organelle back in the spotlight. We provide an overview of drugs known to inhibit apicoplast pathways, alongside recent findings in apicoplast biology that may provide new avenues for drug development.
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Bhagat S, Arfeen M, Das G, Ramkumar M, Khan SI, Tekwani BL, Bharatam PV. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of 4-aminoquinoline-guanylthiourea derivatives as antimalarial agents. Bioorg Chem 2019; 91:103094. [PMID: 31376783 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.103094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Guanylthiourea (GTU) has been identified as an important antifolate antimalarial pharmacophore unit, whereas, 4-amino quinolones are already known for antimalarial activity. In the present work molecules carrying 4-aminoquinoline and GTU moiety have been designed using molecular docking analysis with PfDHFR enzyme and heme unit. The docking results indicated that the necessary interactions (Asp54 and Ile14) and docking score (-9.63 to -7.36 kcal/mmol) were comparable to WR99210 (-9.89 kcal/mol). From these results nine molecules were selected for synthesis. In vitro analysis of these synthesized compounds reveal that out of the nine molecules, eight show antimalarial activity in the range of 0.61-7.55 μM for PfD6 strain and 0.43-8.04 μM for PfW2 strain. Further, molecular dynamics simulations were performed on the most active molecule to establish comparative binding interactions of these compounds and reference ligand with Plasmodium falciparum dihydrofolate reductase (PfDHFR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Bhagat
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Minhajul Arfeen
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Gourav Das
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Mridula Ramkumar
- Department of Pharmacoinformatics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar 160062, Punjab, India
| | - Shabana I Khan
- National Center for Natural Products Research, University of Mississippi, MS 38677, USA
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research, University of Mississippi, MS 38677, USA
| | - Prasad V Bharatam
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector-67, S.A.S. Nagar 160062, Punjab, India.
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Mangione W, Samudrala R. Identifying Protein Features Responsible for Improved Drug Repurposing Accuracies Using the CANDO Platform: Implications for Drug Design. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24010167. [PMID: 30621144 PMCID: PMC6337359 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24010167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug repurposing is a valuable tool for combating the slowing rates of novel therapeutic discovery. The Computational Analysis of Novel Drug Opportunities (CANDO) platform performs shotgun repurposing of 2030 indications/diseases using 3733 drugs/compounds to predict interactions with 46,784 proteins and relating them via proteomic interaction signatures. The accuracy is calculated by comparing interaction similarities of drugs approved for the same indications. We performed a unique subset analysis by breaking down the full protein library into smaller subsets and then recombining the best performing subsets into larger supersets. Up to 14% improvement in accuracy is seen upon benchmarking the supersets, representing a 100⁻1000-fold reduction in the number of proteins considered relative to the full library. Further analysis revealed that libraries comprised of proteins with more equitably diverse ligand interactions are important for describing compound behavior. Using one of these libraries to generate putative drug candidates against malaria, tuberculosis, and large cell carcinoma results in more drugs that could be validated in the biomedical literature compared to using those suggested by the full protein library. Our work elucidates the role of particular protein subsets and corresponding ligand interactions that play a role in drug repurposing, with implications for drug design and machine learning approaches to improve the CANDO platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Mangione
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
| | - Ram Samudrala
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14203, USA.
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Ramakrishnan G, Chandra N, Srinivasan N. Exploring anti-malarial potential of FDA approved drugs: an in silico approach. Malar J 2017; 16:290. [PMID: 28720135 PMCID: PMC5516367 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-017-1937-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The critically important issue on emergence of drug-resistant malarial parasites is compounded by cross resistance, where resistance to one drug confers resistance to other chemically similar drugs or those that share mode of action. This aspect requires discovery of new anti-malarial compounds or formulation of new combination therapy. The current study attempts to contribute towards accelerating anti-malarial drug development efforts, by exploring the potential of existing FDA-approved drugs to target proteins of Plasmodium falciparum. METHODS Using comparative sequence and structure analyses, FDA-approved drugs, originally developed against other pathogens, were identified as potential repurpose-able candidates against P. falciparum. The rationale behind the undertaken approach is the likeliness of small molecules to bind to homologous targets. Such a study of evolutionary relationships between established targets and P. falciparum proteins aided in identification of approved drug candidates that can be explored for their anti-malarial potential. RESULTS Seventy-one FDA-approved drugs were identified that could be repurposed against P. falciparum. A total of 89 potential targets were recognized, of which about 70 are known to participate in parasite housekeeping machinery, protein biosynthesis, metabolic pathways and cell growth and differentiation, which can be prioritized for chemotherapeutic interventions. An additional aspect of prioritization of predicted repurpose-able drugs has been explored on the basis of ability of the drugs to permeate cell membranes, i.e., lipophilicity, since the parasite resides within a parasitophorous vacuole, within the erythrocyte, during the blood stages of infection. Based on this consideration, 46 of 71 FDA-approved drugs have been identified as feasible repurpose-able candidates against P. falciparum, and form a first-line for laboratory investigations. At least five of the drugs identified in the current analysis correspond to existing antibacterial agents already under use as repurposed anti-malarial agents. CONCLUSIONS The drug-target associations predicted, primarily by taking advantage of evolutionary information, provide a valuable resource of attractive and feasible candidate drugs that can be readily taken through further stages of anti-malarial drug development pipeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayatri Ramakrishnan
- Indian Institute of Science Mathematics Initiative, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India.,Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India.,Division of Genetics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Nagasuma Chandra
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, India
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Gaillard T, Madamet M, Tsombeng FF, Dormoi J, Pradines B. Antibiotics in malaria therapy: which antibiotics except tetracyclines and macrolides may be used against malaria? Malar J 2016; 15:556. [PMID: 27846898 PMCID: PMC5109779 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-016-1613-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria, a parasite vector-borne disease, is one of the most significant health threats in tropical regions, despite the availability of individual chemoprophylaxis. Malaria chemoprophylaxis and chemotherapy remain a major area of research, and new drug molecules are constantly being developed before drug-resistant parasites strains emerge. The use of anti-malarial drugs is challenged by contra-indications, the level of resistance of Plasmodium falciparum in endemic areas, clinical tolerance and financial cost. New therapeutic approaches are currently needed to fight against this disease. Some antibiotics that have shown potential effects on malaria parasite have been recently studied in vitro or in vivo intensively. Two families, tetracyclines and macrolides and their derivatives have been particularly studied in recent years. However, other less well-known have been tested or are being used for malaria treatment. Some of these belong to older families, such as quinolones, co-trimoxazole or fusidic acid, while others are new drug molecules such as tigecycline. These emerging antibiotics could be used to prevent malaria in the future. In this review, the authors overview the use of antibiotics for malaria treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiphaine Gaillard
- Fédération des Laboratoires, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Saint Anne, Toulon, France.,Unité de Parasitologie et d'Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France.,Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, Aix Marseille Université, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Marseille, France
| | - Marylin Madamet
- Unité de Parasitologie et d'Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France.,Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, Aix Marseille Université, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Marseille, France.,Centre National de Référence du Paludisme, Marseille, France
| | - Francis Foguim Tsombeng
- Unité de Parasitologie et d'Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France.,Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, Aix Marseille Université, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Marseille, France
| | - Jérôme Dormoi
- Unité de Parasitologie et d'Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France.,Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, Aix Marseille Université, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Marseille, France
| | - Bruno Pradines
- Unité de Parasitologie et d'Entomologie, Département des Maladies Infectieuses, Institut de Recherche Biomédicale des Armées, Marseille, France. .,Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, Aix Marseille Université, UM 63, CNRS 7278, IRD 198, Inserm 1095, Marseille, France. .,Centre National de Référence du Paludisme, Marseille, France.
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Antimalarial Properties of Aqueous Crude Extracts of Gynostemma pentaphyllum and Moringa oleifera Leaves in Combination with Artesunate in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice. J Trop Med 2016; 2016:8031392. [PMID: 27872647 PMCID: PMC5107876 DOI: 10.1155/2016/8031392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/20/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the emergence and spread of malaria parasite with resistance to antimalarial drugs, discovery and development of new, safe, and affordable antimalarial are urgently needed. In this respect, medicinal plant extracts are targets to optimize antimalarial actions and restore efficacy of standard antimalarial drugs. The present study was aimed at determining the antimalarial activities of Gynostemma pentaphyllum and Moringa oleifera leaf extracts in combination with artesunate against Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. P. berghei ANKA maintained by serial passage in ICR mice were used based on intraperitoneal injection of 1 × 107 parasitized erythrocytes and subsequent development of parasitemia. These infected mice were used to investigate the antimalarial activity of artesunate (6 mg/kg) in combination with 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg of G. pentaphyllum and M. oleifera leaf extracts using 4-day suppressive test. It was found that these extracts showed significant (P < 0.05) antimalarial activity in dose-dependent manner with percentage of suppression of 45, 50, and 55% for G. pentaphyllum leaf extract and 35, 40, and 50% for M. oleifera leaf extract. Additionally, artesunate combined with these extracts presented higher antimalarial activity, compared to extract treated alone with percentage of suppression of 78, 91, and 96% for G. pentaphyllum leaf extract and 73, 82, and 91% for M. oleifera leaf extract. The results indicated that combination treatment of G. pentaphyllum or M. oleifera leaf extracts with artesunate was able to increase the antimalarial activity by using low dose of artesunate. Hence, these results justified the combination of these extracts and artesunate in antimalarial herbal remedies.
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Richards SN, Nash MN, Baker ES, Webster MW, Lehane AM, Shafik SH, Martin RE. Molecular Mechanisms for Drug Hypersensitivity Induced by the Malaria Parasite's Chloroquine Resistance Transporter. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005725. [PMID: 27441371 PMCID: PMC4956231 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the Plasmodium falciparum ‘chloroquine resistance transporter’ (PfCRT) confer resistance to chloroquine (CQ) and related antimalarials by enabling the protein to transport these drugs away from their targets within the parasite’s digestive vacuole (DV). However, CQ resistance-conferring isoforms of PfCRT (PfCRTCQR) also render the parasite hypersensitive to a subset of structurally-diverse pharmacons. Moreover, mutations in PfCRTCQR that suppress the parasite’s hypersensitivity to these molecules simultaneously reinstate its sensitivity to CQ and related drugs. We sought to understand these phenomena by characterizing the functions of PfCRTCQR isoforms that cause the parasite to become hypersensitive to the antimalarial quinine or the antiviral amantadine. We achieved this by measuring the abilities of these proteins to transport CQ, quinine, and amantadine when expressed in Xenopus oocytes and complemented this work with assays that detect the drug transport activity of PfCRT in its native environment within the parasite. Here we describe two mechanistic explanations for PfCRT-induced drug hypersensitivity. First, we show that quinine, which normally accumulates inside the DV and therewithin exerts its antimalarial effect, binds extremely tightly to the substrate-binding site of certain isoforms of PfCRTCQR. By doing so it likely blocks the normal physiological function of the protein, which is essential for the parasite’s survival, and the drug thereby gains an additional killing effect. In the second scenario, we show that although amantadine also sequesters within the DV, the parasite’s hypersensitivity to this drug arises from the PfCRTCQR-mediated transport of amantadine from the DV into the cytosol, where it can better access its antimalarial target. In both cases, the mutations that suppress hypersensitivity also abrogate the ability of PfCRTCQR to transport CQ, thus explaining why rescue from hypersensitivity restores the parasite’s sensitivity to this antimalarial. These insights provide a foundation for understanding clinically-relevant observations of inverse drug susceptibilities in the malaria parasite. In acquiring resistance to one drug, many pathogens and cancer cells become hypersensitive to other drugs. This phenomenon could be exploited to combat existing drug resistance and to delay the emergence of resistance to new drugs. However, much remains to be understood about the mechanisms that underlie drug hypersensitivity in otherwise drug-resistant microbes. Here, we describe two mechanisms by which the Plasmodium falciparum ‘chloroquine resistance transporter’ (PfCRT) causes the malaria parasite to become hypersensitive to structurally-diverse drugs. First, we show that an antimalarial drug that normally exerts its killing effect within the parasite’s digestive vacuole is also able to bind extremely tightly to certain forms of PfCRT. This activity will block the natural, essential function of the protein and thereby provide the drug with an additional killing effect. The second mechanism arises when a cytosolic-acting drug that normally sequesters within the digestive vacuole is leaked back into the cytosol via PfCRT. In both cases, mutations that suppress hypersensitivity also abrogate the ability of PfCRT to transport chloroquine, thus explaining why rescue from hypersensitivity restores the parasite’s sensitivity to this antimalarial. These insights provide a foundation for understanding and exploiting the hypersensitivity of chloroquine-resistant parasites to several of the current antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sashika N. Richards
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Megan N. Nash
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Eileen S. Baker
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Michael W. Webster
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Adele M. Lehane
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Sarah H. Shafik
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Rowena E. Martin
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Objectives: Malaria has been a major global health problem in recent times with increasing mortality. Current treatment methods include parasiticidal drugs and vaccinations. However, resistance among malarial parasites to the existing drugs has emerged as a significant area of concern in anti-malarial drug design. Researchers are now desperately looking for new targets to develop anti-malarials drug which is more target specific. Malarial parasites harbor a plastid-like organelle known as the ‘apicoplast’, which is thought to provide an exciting new outlook for the development of drugs to be used against the parasite. This review elaborates on the current state of development of novel compounds targeted againstemerging malaria parasites. Methods: The apicoplast, originates by an endosymbiotic process, contains a range of metabolic pathways and housekeeping processes that differ from the host body and thereby presents ideal strategies for anti-malarial drug therapy. Drugs are designed by targeting the unique mechanism of the apicoplasts genetic machinery. Several anabolic and catabolic processes, like fatty acid, isopenetyl diphosphate and heme synthess in this organelle, have also been targeted by drugs. Results: Apicoplasts offer exciting opportunities for the development of malarial treatment specific drugs have been found to act by disrupting this organelle’s function, which wouldimpede the survival of the parasite. Conclusion: Recent advanced drugs, their modes of action, and their advantages in the treatment of malaria by using apicoplasts as a target are discussed in this review which thought to be very useful in desigining anti-malarial drugs. Targetting the genetic machinery of apicoplast shows a great advantange regarding anti-malarial drug design. Critical knowledge of these new drugs would give a healthier understanding for deciphering the mechanism of action of anti-malarial drugs when targeting apicoplasts to overcome drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avinaba Mukherjee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Natural Science Laboratory, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
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McCarty SE, Schellenberger A, Goodwin DC, Fuanta NR, Tekwani BL, Calderón AI. Plasmodium falciparum Thioredoxin Reductase (PfTrxR) and Its Role as a Target for New Antimalarial Discovery. Molecules 2015; 20:11459-73. [PMID: 26111176 PMCID: PMC6272602 DOI: 10.3390/molecules200611459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing resistance to current antimalarial drugs is a major concern for global public health. The pressing need for new antimalarials has led to an increase in research focused on the Plasmodium parasites that cause human malaria. Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), an enzyme needed to maintain redox equilibrium in Plasmodium species, is a promising target for new antimalarials. This review paper provides an overview of the structure and function of TrxR, discusses similarities and differences between the thioredoxin reductases (TrxRs) of different Plasmodium species and the human forms of the enzyme, gives an overview of modeling Plasmodium infections in animals, and suggests the role of Trx functions in antimalarial drug resistance. TrxR of Plasmodium falciparum is a central focus of this paper since it is the only Plasmodium TrxR that has been crystallized and P. falciparum is the species that causes most malaria cases. It is anticipated that the information summarized here will give insight and stimulate new directions in which research might be most beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara E McCarty
- College of Sciences and Mathematics, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Amanda Schellenberger
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
- College of Agriculture, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Douglas C Goodwin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Ngolui Rene Fuanta
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research and Department of BioMolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS 38677, USA.
| | - Angela I Calderón
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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