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Nayda NC, Thomas JM, Delaney CL, Miller MD. The effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake on blood levels of omega-3s in people with chronic atherosclerotic disease: a systematic review. Nutr Rev 2023; 81:1447-1461. [PMID: 36882117 PMCID: PMC10563859 DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuad020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Atherosclerosis is a systemic pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidative disease, accounting for approximately a third of deaths globally. It has been proposed that omega-3s, through their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, mitigate atherosclerotic disease progression. However, due to the systemic pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidative state of atherosclerosis, it is proposed that patients with atherosclerotic disease may have higher omega-3 requirements than the average requirement, due to increased nutrient utilization in anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant processes. OBJECTIVE The aim of this review was to determine what dose and duration of omega-3 supplementation is required to reach a therapeutic blood level of omega-3s (eicosapentaenoic acid ≥150 µg/mL or omega-3 index ≥8%) in people with chronic atherosclerotic disease. DATA SOURCES This systematic review comprehensively searched MEDLINE, Emcare, Scopus, and CINAHL using key search terms for atherosclerotic disease, omega-3, supplementation, and blood levels of omega-3s. DATA EXTRACTION Two reviewers independently screened 529 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) supplementing omega-3s in patients with chronic atherosclerotic disease. DATA ANALYSIS In total, 25 journal articles from 17 original RCTs were included and assessed quantitatively. Supplementation at 1.8 g to 3.4 g per day for a 3-month-6-month duration, and at 4.4 g and above for as little as 1 month-6 months were identified as the most effective dosage ranges for increasing blood levels of omega-3s to therapeutic levels in people with atherosclerotic disease. CONCLUSIONS Consideration should be given to routine omega-3 supplementation and to increasing the omega-3 dietary recommendations and upper limits of daily intake to improve clinical outcomes and reduce the risk of cardiac mortality in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C Nayda
- are with the Caring Futures Institute, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jolene M Thomas
- are with the Caring Futures Institute, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Christopher L Delaney
- is with the College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
- is with the Department of Vascular Surgery, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
| | - Michelle D Miller
- are with the Caring Futures Institute, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia, Australia
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Dempsey M, Rockwell MS, Wentz LM. The influence of dietary and supplemental omega-3 fatty acids on the omega-3 index: A scoping review. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1072653. [PMID: 36742439 PMCID: PMC9892774 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1072653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The majority of the population do not consume adequate omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 FA), leading to global deficiencies, as evidenced by poor omega-3 status. An indicator of overall n-3 FA status, omega3-index (O3i) ≥8% has been associated with reduced risk of chronic disease, most notably cardiovascular disease. Thus, a synthesis of current research summarizing the effects of n-3 FA intake on O3i is warranted to develop and refine clinical recommendations. The purpose of this scoping review was to evaluate the effect of n-3 FA interventions and estimate sufficient n-3 FA intake to improve O3i to meet recommendations. Methods Search criteria were human studies published in English from 2004 to 2022 that assessed O3i at baseline and following an n-3 FA intervention. Results Fifty-eight studies that met inclusion criteria were identified. Protocols included fish consumption, fortified foods, combined eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplements, supplements of single n-3 FA (alpha linolenic acid (ALA), EPA, DHA, etc.), and supplements providing multiple n-3 FA. Dietary supplements varied in chemical composition; the most common were triglycerides or ethyl esters. The lowest supplementation protocol was 100 mg/d, and the largest was 4,400 mg/d EPA and DHA. Supplementation time period ranged from 3 weeks to 1 year. At baseline, three study samples had mean O3i >8%, although many intervention protocols successfully increased O3i. Discussion Generally, the lowest doses shown to be effective in raising O3i to recommended levels were >1,000 mg/d of combination DHA plus EPA for 12 weeks or longer. Supplements composed of triglycerides were more bioavailable and thus more effective than other formulas. Based on the data evaluated, practical recommendations to improve O3i to ≥8% are consumption of 1,000-1,500 mg/d EPA plus DHA as triglycerides for at least 12 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Dempsey
- Department of Nutrition and Healthcare Management, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, United States
| | - Michelle S. Rockwell
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Laurel M. Wentz
- Department of Nutrition and Healthcare Management, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC, United States,*Correspondence: Laurel M. Wentz ✉
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Docosahexaenoic Acid as the Bidirectional Biomarker of Dietary and Metabolic Risk Patterns in Chinese Children: A Comparison with Plasma and Erythrocyte. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14153095. [PMID: 35956271 PMCID: PMC9370652 DOI: 10.3390/nu14153095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The present study aims to measure docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in both the plasma and erythrocyte of a child population and compares them with respect to their associations with dietary and metabolic risk patterns. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted, and a total of 435 children ages 5−7 years old were recruited. Diet information was collected using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The physical indicators, blood pressure, and glycolipid metabolic indicators were determined. The plasma and erythrocyte DHA were analyzed using a gas chromatography mass spectrometer. Principal component analysis was used to identify dietary and metabolic risk patterns. Multivariate regression analyses were used to investigate the associations of DHA status with dietary and metabolic risk patterns. Results: A significant correlation between plasma and the erythrocyte DHA concentration was found (r = 0.232, p < 0.001). A diversified dietary pattern characterized that a high intake of diversified foods had a positive association with the plasma DHA level (β = 0.145, 95% CI: 0.045~0.244, p = 0.004). Children of obesity risk patterns with a high weight, pelvis breadth, BMI, upper arm circumference, and chest circumference had lower plasma DHA concentrations (OR = 0.873, 95% CI: 0.786~0.969, p = 0.011). Children with higher plasma and erythrocyte DHA concentrations were adhered to blood lipid risk patterns with high CHOL and LDL-C levels. The plasma DHA (OR = 1.271, 95% CI: 1.142~1.415, p < 0.001) had a stronger association with a blood lipid risk pattern than erythrocyte (OR = 1.043, 95% CI: 1.002~1.086, p = 0.040). Conclusions: The diversified dietary pattern had a higher plasma DHA concentration. Lower levels of plasma DHA were positively associated with obesity in children. DHA in plasma appears to be more strongly associated with blood lipid metabolism than erythrocyte. Plasma DHA may be a more sensitive bidirectional biomarker to evaluate the recently comprehensive diet intake and metabolic risk of children.
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Association between Obesity and Omega-3 Status in Healthy Young Women. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12051480. [PMID: 32443667 PMCID: PMC7284478 DOI: 10.3390/nu12051480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) are essential for healthy development and protect against metabolic disease. However, individuals with obesity may be pre-disposed to experiencing lower n-3 PUFA status than normal-weight individuals. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between the omega-3 index (O3I), body mass index (BMI) and dietary intake in healthy young women (n = 300; age = 18–35 y), a group not previously focused on. Intake was adjusted for energy using the residuals method, and associations were explored using independent t-tests and Pearson’s correlations. Participants with obesity were found to have significantly lower O3I than normal-weight participants (p < 0.0001); however, no significant differences were observed in mean n-3 PUFA intakes. Even so, energy-adjusted intakes of n-3 PUFAs, with the exception of alpha-linolenic acid, were significantly correlated with O3I. This study demonstrates that O3I is influenced by both BMI and diet in young women; however the relationship between these two variables may be complex. Current intakes of n-3 PUFA observed in young women may not be effective in achieving target O3I levels in those with obesity, and further research is needed to find effective ways of improving n-3 PUFA status in a group already at increased risk of metabolic disease.
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Filipovic MG, Aeschbacher S, Reiner MF, Stivala S, Gobbato S, Bonetti N, Risch M, Risch L, Camici GG, Luescher TF, von Schacky C, Conen D, Beer JH. Whole blood omega-3 fatty acid concentrations are inversely associated with blood pressure in young, healthy adults. J Hypertens 2018; 36:1548-1554. [PMID: 29570511 PMCID: PMC6085127 DOI: 10.1097/hjh.0000000000001728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Omega-3 fatty acids (n - 3 FA) may have blood pressure (BP)-lowering effects in untreated hypertensive and elderly patients. The effect of n - 3 FA on BP in young, healthy adults remains unknown. The Omega-3 Index reliably reflects an individuals' omega-3 status. We hypothesized that the Omega-3 Index is inversely associated with BP levels in young healthy adults. METHODS The current study (n = 2036) is a cross-sectional study investigating the baseline characteristics of a cohort, which includes healthy adults, age 25-41 years. Individuals with cardiovascular disease, known diabetes or a BMI higher than 35 kg/m were excluded. The Omega-3 Index was determined in whole blood using gas chromatography. Association with office and 24-h BP was assessed using multivariable linear regression models adjusted for potential confounders. RESULTS Median Omega-3 Index was 4.58% (interquartile range 4.08; 5.25). Compared with individuals in the lowest Omega-3 Index quartile, individuals in the highest had a SBP and DBP that was 4 and 2 mmHg lower, respectively (P < 0.01). A significant linear inverse relationship of the Omega-3 Index with 24-h and office BP was observed. Per 1-U increase in log-transformed Omega-3 Index the lowering in BP (given as multivariable adjusted β coefficients; 95% confidence interval) was -2.67 mmHg (-4.83; -0.51; P = 0.02) and -2.30 mmHg (-3.92; -0.68; P = 0.005) for 24-h SBP and DBP, respectively. CONCLUSION A higher Omega-3 Index is associated with statistically significant, clinically relevant lower SBP and DBP levels in normotensive young and healthy individuals. Diets rich in n - 3 FA may be a strategy for primary prevention of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark G. Filipovic
- Department of Internal Medicine, Cantonal Hospital of Baden, Baden
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich
| | - Stefanie Aeschbacher
- Division of Cardiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Basel, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin F. Reiner
- Department of Internal Medicine, Cantonal Hospital of Baden, Baden
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich
| | - Simona Stivala
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich
| | - Sara Gobbato
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich
| | - Nicole Bonetti
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich
| | - Martin Risch
- Labormedizinisches Zentrum Dr Risch, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
- Division of Laboratory Medicine, Cantonal Hospital Graubünden, Chur
| | - Lorenz Risch
- Labormedizinisches Zentrum Dr Risch, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Institute of Clinical Chemistry, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland
- Department of Preventative Cardiology, Private University Triesen, Triesen, Liechtenstein
| | | | - Thomas F. Luescher
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Brompton & Harefield Hospitals, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - Clemens von Schacky
- Department of Preventive Cardiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
| | - David Conen
- Division of Cardiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Basel, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- Population Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Juerg H. Beer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Cantonal Hospital of Baden, Baden
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Zurich
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Polus A, Zapala B, Razny U, Gielicz A, Kiec-Wilk B, Malczewska-Malec M, Sanak M, Childs CE, Calder PC, Dembinska-Kiec A. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation influences the whole blood transcriptome in women with obesity, associated with pro-resolving lipid mediator production. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1861:1746-1755. [PMID: 27531277 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Revised: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may reduce low-grade inflammation associated with obesity. The relationship between therapeutic response to n-3 PUFAs and modification of the transcriptome in obesity or metabolic syndrome remains to be explored. Blood samples were obtained from women with obesity before and after three-months supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 PUFAs (1.8g EPA+DHA per day) or from controls. n-3 PUFAs (GC) and plasma concentrations of lipoxins, resolvins, protectin X (GC-MS/MS) and inflammatory markers (ELISA) were measured. Whole blood transcriptome was assayed using microarray. Women supplemented with n-3 PUFAs for 3months had significantly higher levels of EPA and DHA in plasma phosphatidylcholine. n-3 PUFA supplementation, in contrast to placebo, significantly decreased the concentrations of several inflammatory markers (SELE, MCP-1, sVCAM-1, sPECAM-1, and hsCRP), fasting triglycerides and insulin and increased the concentrations of pro-resolving DHA derivatives in plasma. The microarray data demonstrated effects of n-3 PUFAs on PPAR-α, NRF2 and NF-κB target genes. N-3 PUFAs increased DHA-derived pro-resolving mediators in women with obesity. Elevated resolvins and up-regulation of the resolvin receptor occurred in parallel with activation of PPAR-α target genes related to lipid metabolism and of NRF2 up-regulated antioxidant enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Polus
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland.
| | - Barbara Zapala
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Urszula Razny
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Gielicz
- Department of Molecular Biology and Clinical Genetics Laboratory, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Beata Kiec-Wilk
- Department of Metabolic Disorders, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | | | - Marek Sanak
- Department of Molecular Biology and Clinical Genetics Laboratory, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Caroline E Childs
- Human Development and Health Academic Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Philip C Calder
- Human Development and Health Academic Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Aldona Dembinska-Kiec
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Collegium Medicum, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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Harris WS, Masson S, Barlera S, Milani V, Pileggi S, Franzosi MG, Marchioli R, Tognoni G, Tavazzi L, Latini R. Red blood cell oleic acid levels reflect olive oil intake while omega-3 levels reflect fish intake and the use of omega-3 acid ethyl esters: The Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardico-Heart Failure trial. Nutr Res 2016; 36:989-994. [PMID: 27632919 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2016.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto Miocardico-Heart Failure (GISSI-HF) study reported benefits of n-3 fatty acid (FA) treatment on cardiovascular (CV) events, but the effects of treatment on a putative CV disease risk factor, the red blood cell (RBC) n-3 FA level (the omega-3 index), have not been examined in this context. We hypothesized that treatment with prescription omega-3 acid ethyl esters (O3AEE) would increase the omega-3 index to the proposed cardioprotective value of 8%. RBCs were collected from a subset of patients participating in the GISSI-HF study (n=461 out of 6975 randomized), at baseline and after 3 months of treatment with either an olive oil placebo or O3AEE (1 g/d). RBC FA levels were expressed as a percentage of total FA. Patients also reported their typical olive oil and fish intakes. RBC oleic acid levels were directly correlated with reported frequency of olive oil consumption, and the omega-3 index was correlated with reported fish intake (P for trends <0.001 for both). After treatment, the omega-3 index increased from 4.8±1.7% to 6.7±1.9% but was unchanged in the placebo group (4.7±1.7 to 4.8±1.5%) (P<.0001 for changes between groups). At 3 months, more patients reached the proposed target omega-3 index level of 8%-12% in the treated vs placebo group (22.6% vs. 1.3%, P<.0001), however, what omega-3 index levels were ultimately achieved after four years in this trial are unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S Harris
- Department of Internal Medicine, Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, Sioux Falls, SD; OmegaQuant Analytics, LLC, Sioux Falls, SD.
| | - Serge Masson
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
| | - Simona Barlera
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Milani
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
| | - Silvana Pileggi
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Franzosi
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
| | | | - Gianni Tognoni
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
| | - Luigi Tavazzi
- Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, Ettore Sansavini Health Science Foundation, Cotignola, Italy
| | - Roberto Latini
- Department of Cardiovascular Research, IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri,", Milan, Italy
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Djuricic ID, Mazic SD, Kotur-Stevuljevic JM, Djordjevic VR, Sobajic SS. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid dietary recommendations are moderately efficient in optimizing their status in healthy middle-aged subjects with low fish consumption: a cross-over study. Nutr Res 2014; 34:210-8. [PMID: 24655487 DOI: 10.1016/j.nutres.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 12/25/2013] [Accepted: 12/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Several dietary recommendations have been made for marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) intake; however, the effectiveness of these fatty acids has not been thoroughly examined. The aim of this study was to investigate whether public-aimed dietary recommendations for long-chain n-3 PUFA from oily fish or fish oil supplements are efficient in optimizing their status in red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets of healthy middle-aged subjects with low customary fish consumption. In a randomized, cross-over trial conducted over an 8-week period and separated by a 6-month washout period, 33 participants received an oily fish (salmon), providing 274 mg eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) + 671 mg docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day, or a commercial fish oil supplement, providing 396 mg EPA + 250 mg DHA per day. Blood samples were collected before and after each intervention period, and RBCs and platelets were used for analysis of fatty acids. After 8 weeks, there were significant increases in EPA and DHA content in RBCs and platelets with both salmon and fish oil capsules. The increase in EPA in both RBCs and platelets was higher with capsules, whereas the increase in DHA in both RBCs and platelets was higher with salmon. In spite of the quantitative and qualitative differences between n-3 fatty acid profiles in salmon and the fish oil supplement, the overall incorporation of these fatty acids into RBCs and platelets did not differ in our short-term study (P > .05). The sum of EPA + DHA significantly increased in both compartments following dietary recommendations for oily fish and fish oil supplements intake in middle-aged healthy subjects with low baseline long-chain n-3 PUFA status, although targeted values with optimal cardioprotective effect of more than 8% were not achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana D Djuricic
- Department of Bromatology, School of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia.
| | - Sanja D Mazic
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | | | - Vladimir R Djordjevic
- Clinic for Digestive Surgery-I Surgical Clinic, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sladjana S Sobajic
- Department of Bromatology, School of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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