Pesticide retailers' knowledge and handling practices in selected towns of Tanzania

Agro-input dealers' perspectives on the design of a certification scheme for pesticide risk reduction

BACKGROUND

While pesticides are essential for crop protection and food security, they pose serious risks to human health and the environment. Agro-input dealers can play an important role in mitigating pesticide risks, given that they are a major source of pesticides and plant health information for many developing-country farmers. In this article, we assess the willingness of agro-input dealers to offer integrated pest management-based advisory services and promote pesticide risk reduction through a voluntary certification scheme.

RESULTS

Using survey data from 557 agro-input dealers in Uganda and a discrete choice experiment, we find that the proposed certification scheme is significantly valued by agro-input dealers, particularly for its potential to provide training opportunities and ensure safety to human health and the environment. Agro-input dealers have a positive attitude towards a certification scheme that restricts the sale of high-risk pesticide products, especially if it stimulates additional income-generating opportunities. Further analysis shows that preferences for voluntary certification attributes are influenced by certification experience, agro-dealership experience, business ownership status and incidence of acute pesticide poisoning.

CONCLUSION

The study findings demonstrate that agro-input dealers are conscious of pesticide risks to human and environmental health and are keen to participate in a certification scheme promoting safer plant protection products. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Parkinson's Disease in Sub-Saharan Africa: Pesticides as a Double-Edged Sword

Long-term exposure to pesticides used in agriculture is increasingly being identified as a risk factor for developing Parkinson's disease. How chronic pesticide exposure might contribute to the growth of Parkinson's disease in the mainly agricultural communities of Sub-Saharan Africa has thus far received limited attention. There are specific concerns in this area of the world: aging of the population, in combination with chronic exposure to widely used pesticides, including those that have been restricted elsewhere in the world because of neurotoxicity and other health risks. Of interest, the prevalence of Parkinson's disease among specific (semi)nomadic populations in Tanzania seems very low, possibly due to their lack of exposure to agricultural chemicals. But at the same time, pesticides have also brought important benefits to this part of the world. Specifically, in Sub-Saharan Africa, pesticides have been directly helpful in preventing and controlling famine and in containing major human infectious diseases. This creates a complex risk-benefit ratio to the use of pesticides within a global perspective, and urgently calls for the development and implementation of affordable alternatives for areas such as Sub-Saharan Africa, including non-neurotoxic compounds and non-chemical alternatives for the use of pesticides.

The Body, the Brain, the Environment, and Parkinson's Disease

The brain- and body-first models of Lewy body disorders predict that aggregated alpha-synuclein pathology usually begins in either the olfactory system or the enteric nervous system. In both scenarios the pathology seems to arise in structures that are closely connected to the outside world. Environmental toxicants, including certain pesticides, industrial chemicals, and air pollution are therefore plausible trigger mechanisms for Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Here, we propose that toxicants inhaled through the nose can lead to pathological changes in alpha-synuclein in the olfactory system that subsequently spread and give rise to a brain-first subtype of Lewy body disease. Similarly, ingested toxicants can pass through the gut and cause alpha-synuclein pathology that then extends via parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways to ultimately produce a body-first subtype. The resulting spread can be tracked by the development of symptoms, clinical assessments, in vivo imaging, and ultimately pathological examination. The integration of environmental exposures into the brain-first and body-first models generates testable hypotheses, including on the prevalence of the clinical conditions, their future incidence, imaging patterns, and pathological signatures. The proposed link, though, has limitations and leaves many questions unanswered, such as the role of the skin, the influence of the microbiome, and the effects of ongoing exposures. Despite these limitations, the interaction of exogenous factors with the nose and the gut may explain many of the mysteries of Parkinson's disease and open the door toward the ultimate goal -prevention.

Pesticide Safety Awareness among Rural Farmers in Dadinkowa, Gombe State, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION

Because of the longer growing season and warmer climate, weeds and insect pests spread are on the rise, thereby increasing the demand for pesticide use and consequently harmful emissions that further exacerbate climate change. Unsafe occupational exposure to pesticide residue is associated with a lack of product knowledge and safety awareness among farmers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional descriptive study design was adopted for this study in which a face-to-face administered questionnaire was used to collect data from 285 respondents who were selected using convenient snowball sampling technique. Knowledge, awareness, and practices related to pesticide storage, handling, application, and containers disposal among the farmers were measured. Categorical variables were analysed and presented using descriptive statistics in the form of frequency count and percentage, while numeric items were summarized using mean and standard deviation.

RESULTS

Dichlorvos and Perfekthion 2.5 EC listed in the WHO Group I pesticide classification were among the most frequently used pesticides. Symptoms of pesticide intoxication reported include headaches (56.1%), dizziness (56.5%), skin irritation (53.3%), and fatigue (45.6%), respectively. Farmers' behaviour during pesticide application include blowing clogged nozzle with mouth (42.7%), talking while spraying (59.8%), and mixing pesticide with bare hands (31.1%). Furthermore, 38.5% of them use pesticide containers for other domestic purposes.

CONCLUSIONS

Socioeconomic factors, i.e., educational level, age, and years of farm practice, influenced farmers safety behaviour. Based on these findings, an approach that will help strengthen capacity building programmes and the enhancement of knowledge-based initiatives around the adoption of non-synthetic pest-control methods should be encouraged.

Participatory approaches for raising awareness among subsistence farmers in Tanzania about the spread of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors and the possible link to improper agricultural pesticide use

Background

Insecticide resistance is a key barrier to long-term malaria control, and it may be exacerbated by poor agricultural pesticide use. Current practices, however, do not link public health and agricultural pesticide use. This study investigated the perspectives of farmers and other stakeholders regarding the integration of agricultural and public health measures to address resistance. Additionally, the feasibility of participatory workshops to increase the farmers’ understanding and participation in pesticide stewardship was assessed.

Methods

Four themes were investigated: pesticide awareness, practices, and opinions of; insecticide resistance in malaria vectors; the effectiveness of current malaria prevention tools; and the links between agricultural and public health pesticide usage. Participatory workshops and field training were held with entomologists, farmers, and agricultural specialists, focusing on agro-ecosystem practices related to pest control; and local farmers were involved in live-testing for insecticides resistance of local Anopheles mosquitoes.

Results

Most farmers (94%) considered pesticides effective, and nearly half of them (n = 198, 46.4%) could identify and name crop pests and diseases, mostly using local names. Three quarters were unaware of mosquito larvae in their fields, and only 7% considered their fields as potential sources of mosquitoes. Two thirds were uninformed of any effects that agricultural pesticides may have on mosquitoes, and three quarters had never heard of resistance in malaria mosquitoes. Experts from various sectors acknowledged that agricultural pesticides might impact malaria control through increasing resistance. They did, however, emphasize the importance of crop protection and advocated for the use of pesticides sparingly and non-chemical approaches. Farmers learnt how to discriminate between malaria vectors and non-vectors, identify agricultural pests and diseases, choose and use pesticides effectively, and conduct resistance tests during the participatory workshops.

Conclusion

This study emphasizes the significance of enhancing subsistence farmers’ awareness of mosquito ecology as well as merging public health and agricultural pest management measures. Participatory techniques have the potential to raise stakeholder awareness and engagement, resulting in more effective resistance management.

What agro-input dealers know, sell and say to smallholder farmers about pesticides: a mystery shopping and KAP analysis in Uganda

BACKGROUND

Pesticides can have negative effects on human and environmental health, especially when not handled as intended. In many countries, agro-input dealers sell pesticides to smallholder farmers and are supposed to provide recommendations on application and handling. This study investigates the role of agro-input dealers in transmitting safety information from chemical manufacturers to smallholder farmers, assesses the safety of their shops, what products they sell, and how agro-input dealers abide by laws and recommendations on best practices for preventing pesticide risk situations.

METHODS

Applying a mixed-methods approach, we studied agro-input dealers in Central and Western Uganda. Structured questionnaires were applied to understand agro-input dealers' knowledge, attitude and practices on pesticides (n = 402). Shop layout (n = 392) and sales interaction (n = 236) were assessed through observations. Actual behavior of agro-input dealers when selling pesticides was revealed through mystery shopping with local farmers buying pesticides (n = 94).

RESULTS

While 97.0% of agro-input dealers considered advising customers their responsibility, only 26.6% of mystery shoppers received any advice from agro-input dealers when buying pesticides. 53.2% of products purchased were officially recommended. Sales interactions focused mainly on product choice and price. Agro-input dealers showed limited understanding of labels and active ingredients. Moreover, 25.0% of shops were selling repackaged products, while 10.5% sold unmarked or unlabeled products. 90.1% of shops were lacking safety equipment. Pesticides of World Health Organization toxicity class I and II were sold most frequently. Awareness of health effects seemed to be high, although agro-input dealers showed incomplete hygiene practices and were lacking infrastructure. One reason for these findings might be that only 55.7% of agro-input dealers held a certificate of competency on safe handling of pesticides and even fewer (5.7%) were able to provide a government-approved up-to-date license.

CONCLUSION

The combination of interviews, mystery shopping and observations proved to be useful, allowing the comparison of stated and actual behavior. While agro-input dealers want to sell pesticides and provide the corresponding risk advice, their customers might receive neither the appropriate product nor sufficient advice on proper handling. In light of the expected increase in pesticide use, affordable, accessible and repeated pesticide training and shop inspections are indispensable.

Patterns of pesticide usage in agriculture in rural Tanzania call for integrating agricultural and public health practices in managing insecticide-resistance in malaria vectors

BACKGROUND

Unrestricted use of pesticides in agriculture is likely to increase insecticide resistance in mosquito vectors. Unfortunately, strategies for managing insecticide resistance in agriculture and public health sectors lack integration. This study explored the types and usage of agricultural pesticides, and awareness and management practices among retailers and farmers in Ulanga and Kilombero districts in south-eastern Tanzania, where Anopheles mosquitoes are resistant to pyrethroids.

METHODS

An exploratory sequential mixed-methods approach was employed. First, a survey to characterize pesticide stocks was conducted in agricultural and veterinary (agrovet) retail stores. Interviews to assess general knowledge and practices regarding agricultural pesticides were performed with 17 retailers and 30 farmers, followed by a survey involving 427 farmers. Concurrently, field observations were done to validate the results.

RESULTS

Lambda-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin (both pyrethroids) and imidacloprids (neonicotinoids) were the most common agricultural insecticides sold to farmers. The herbicide glyphosate (amino-phosphonates) (59.0%), and the fungicides dithiocarbamate and acylalanine (54.5%), and organochlorine (27.3%) were also readily available in the agrovet shops and widely used by farmers. Although both retailers and farmers had at least primary-level education and recognized pesticides by their trade names, they lacked knowledge on pest control or proper usage of these pesticides. Most of the farmers (54.4%, n = 316) relied on instructions from pesticides dealers. Overall, 93.7% (400) farmers practised pesticides mixing in their farms, often in close proximity to water sources. One-third of the farmers disposed of their pesticide leftovers (30.0%, n = 128) and most farmers discarded empty pesticide containers into rivers or nearby bushes (55.7%, n = 238).

CONCLUSION

Similarities of active ingredients used in agriculture and malaria vector control, poor pesticide management practices and low-levels of awareness among farmers and pesticides retailers might enhance the selection of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors. This study emphasizes the need for improving awareness among retailers and farmers on proper usage and management of pesticides. The study also highlights the need for an integrated approach, including coordinated education on pesticide use, to improve the overall management of insecticide resistance in both agricultural and public health sectors.

Dynamics and monitoring of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors across mainland Tanzania from 1997 to 2017: a systematic review

Background

Malaria still claims substantial lives of individuals in Tanzania. Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spray (IRS) are used as major malaria vector control tools. These tools are facing great challenges from the rapid escalating insecticide resistance in malaria vector populations. This review presents the information on the dynamics and monitoring of insecticide resistance in malaria vectors in mainland Tanzania since 1997. The information is important to policy-makers and other vector control stakeholders to reflect and formulate new resistance management plans in the country.

Methods

Reviewed articles on susceptibility and mechanisms of resistance in malaria vectors to insecticides across mainland Tanzania were systematically searched from the following databases: PubMed, Google scholar, HINARI and AGORA. The inclusion criteria were articles published between 2000 and 2017, reporting susceptibility of malaria vectors to insecticides, mechanisms of resistance in the mainland Tanzania, involving field collected adult mosquitoes, and mosquitoes raised from the field collected larvae. Exclusion criteria were articles reporting insecticide resistance in larval bio-assays, laboratory strains, and unpublished data. Reviewed information include year of study, malaria vectors, insecticides, and study sites. This information was entered in the excel sheet and analysed.

Results

A total of 30 articles met the selection criteria. The rapid increase of insecticide resistance in the malaria vectors across the country was reported since year 2006 onwards. Insecticide resistance in Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) was detected in at least one compound in each class of all recommended insecticide classes. However, the Anopheles funestus s.l. is highly resistant to pyrethroids and DDT. Knockdown resistance (kdr) mechanism in An. gambiae s.l. is widely studied in the country. Biochemical resistance by detoxification enzymes (P450s, NSE and GSTs) in An. gambiae s.l. was also recorded. Numerous P450s genes associated with metabolic resistance were over transcribed in An. gambiae s.l. collected from agricultural areas. However, no study has reported mechanisms of insecticide resistance in the An. funestus s.l. in the country.

Conclusion

This review has shown the dynamics and monitoring of insecticide resistance in malaria vector populations across mainland Tanzanian. This highlights the need for devising improved control approaches of the malaria vectors in the country.

Health and safety of pesticide applicators in a high income agricultural setting: a knowledge, attitude, practice, and toxicity study from North-Eastern Italy

Background

We assessed knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding pesticide handling and related health problems among pesticide applicators (PAs) from the Autonomous Province of Trento, Italy.

Methods

A cross-sectional questionnaire-based study was performed in spring 2016, involving 260 PAs. Logistic regression analyses were used to identify factors associated with a safer use of pesticides.

Results

The mean age of participants was 48.8 ± 13.2 years. 89.2% were males. Use of personal protective equipment (PPE) was diffuse, particularly gloves (92.7%), face mask (91.2%), and post-spraying personal hygiene practices were extensively applied. Overall, 43.5% had experienced pesticide-related symptoms especially in subjects misusing PPE, but also for avoiding hygienic procedures. Knowledge about pesticides was a significant predictor for frequency of symptoms.

Conclusions

As a better knowledge of pesticide-related risks was a significant predictor to reduce symptoms, our results stress that improving awareness and promoting safe use of pesticide may improve the health of PAs.

Factors affecting pesticide safety behaviour: The perceptions of Nepalese farmers and retailers

Indiscriminate use of pesticides in vegetable farming is an emerging problem resulting in increasing health and environmental risks in developing countries including Nepal. As there are limited studies focusing on farmers' and retailers' knowledge related to pesticide use and associated risks as well as safety behaviour, this study assesses their perceptions of pesticide use, associated impacts on human and environmental health and safety behaviours. This study is also intended to quantify pesticide use in vegetable farming. We used the Health Belief Model (HBM) to evaluate farmers' and retailers' safety behaviour associated with pesticides. We interviewed 183 farmers and 45 retailers. The study revealed that farmers applied pesticides at an average of 2.9kga.i./ha per crop per season; and insecticides, especially pyrethrins and pyrethroids as well as organophosphate, were the most frequently used. Retailers were more aware of the threats surrounding pesticide use and were thus more aware of the risks to their own health as well as to the health of animals, birds, fishes, and honey bees. Headache (73.8%) was the most commonly reported acute health symptom of pesticide use. Farmers often did not adopt the appropriate safety measures when handling pesticides sighting the constrained perceived barriers (direct path coefficient, DPC=-0.837) such as feeling uncomfortable and the unavailability of safety measures. Likewise, retailers lacked the incentive (direct path coefficient, DPC=0.397) to adopt the necessary safety measures while handling pesticides. Training and awareness programs addressing safe handling practices and safety measures as well as education concerning the long-term risks of pesticide exposure on health and the environment, through radio, television and posters, may improve the safety behaviour of farmers and retailers.

Evaluation of hematological and biochemical parameters of pesticide retailers following occupational exposure to a mixture of pesticides

AIMS

This study was undertaken to ascertain whether light occupational exposure to pesticides by retailers might be associated with any liver, kidney, nervous system dysfunction or hematological abnormalities.

MAIN METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 70 male pesticide retailers (cases) and 64 male subjects, randomly selected from the constructions workers of city council contractors, as the referent group, were investigated. Urine and blood samples were taken from all subjects for urine analysis, hematological and biochemical parameters. Data analysis was conducted through SPSS v.19 using t-test and chi-square test.

KEY FINDINGS

The results of urine analysis showed that the frequency of abnormal urine tests was significantly higher in cases than in referent individuals. Similarly, the results of CBC showed that the mean values of monocyte, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin and platelet distribution width were significantly lower, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration and red blood cell distribution width were significantly higher in retailers. No significant differences were found for other parameters.

SIGNIFICANCE

These findings indicate that an association exists between exposure to pesticides by retailers and early subtle and sub-clinical changes in the urine tests and hematological parameters. Engineering measures are recommended to eliminate exposure to pesticides and to prevent its associated outcomes.

Pesticide Health and Safety Challenges Facing Informal Sector Workers: A Case of Small-scale Agricultural Workers in Tanzania

The Tanzania informal sector is growing fast, with precarious working conditions and particular hazards for women and children in agriculture. Hazardous agricultural chemicals including pesticides are mostly imported and have been used for many years. Despite the role played by pesticides in food security and vector control, these chemicals are responsible for acute and chronic illnesses among communities. The availability of obsolete persistent organic pesticides on the open market indicates existence of an inadequate regulatory system. People who get injured or ill in the agriculture sector in Tanzania receive health services in primary health care facilities where professionals have little or no knowledge of pesticides. We are presenting the pesticide health and safety challenges faced by small-scale farmers who fall in the informal sector. Achievements that have been made by the government and other players to reduce and prevent pesticide exposures and poisoning are also outlined.

Self-Reported Symptoms and Pesticide Use among Farm Workers in Arusha, Northern Tanzania: A Cross Sectional Study

The objective of the study was to describe self-reported health symptoms, the use of personal protective gear and clothing and poor safety procedures when applying pesticides among farm workers. A total of 128 adult farm workers were interviewed using a structured questionnaire during the farming season. The commonly used pesticides included profenofos, mancozeb, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, endosulfan and carbosulfan. The majority (>90%) of farm workers used no personal protective clothing while handling pesticides. More than one-third of farm workers ate and drank without washing their hands following pesticide handling, while a smaller number smoked or chewed gum. Wearing special boots during pesticide application was found to reduce the risk of skin rash (OR = 0.2, 95% CI: 0.06-0.66), whereas smoking when applying pesticides increased the risk of chest pain occurrence (OR = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.14-15.43), as well as forgetfulness (OR = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.30-14.02). Chewing gum and eating when applying pesticides was associated with diarrhoea (OR = 11.0, 95% CI: 1.80-6.84 and OR = 7.0, 95% CI: 1.27-3.67 respectively). The increased self-reported prevalence of post-exposure adverse health effects among farm workers was associated with poor use of personal protective clothing and poor safety practices during pesticide use and handling. These data indicate the need for improved availability and use of protective equipment, and training in crop and pest management practices to prevent risky behavioursand for safer and sustainable vegetable production.

Pesticide Knowledge and Safety Practices among Farm Workers in Kuwait: Results of a Survey

The unsafe and indiscriminate use of pesticides in agriculture represents a major hazard to the environment and human health. The aim of this study was to assess the levels of knowledge, attitude and practices of Kuwaiti farmers regarding the safe use of pesticides. A total of 250 farmers participated in this study through in-depth interviews and observations on-farm. The majority of the farmers acknowledged that pesticides were harmful to their health (71%) and the environment (65%). However, farmers’ level of knowledge of pesticide safety is insufficient. Over 70% of the farmers did not read or follow pesticide label instructions, and 58% did not use any personal protective equipment (PPE) when handling pesticides. Educated farmers were significantly more likely to use PPE compared with famers with limited formal education (χ² = 9.89, p < 0.05). Storage of pesticides within living areas was reported by 20% of farmers. When disposing of pesticide wastes, respondents adopted unsafe practices such as discarding, incinerating, or burying empty pesticide containers on-farm, or reusing the containers. Farmers also reported disposing leftover pesticide solution or old pesticide stocks on-farm or in the sewer. A significant number (82%) of the farmers reported at least one symptom of acute pesticide poisoning. Although farmers’ knowledge of pesticide hazards was high, the reported safety measures were poor. Comprehensive intervention measures to reduce the health and environmental risks of pesticides are needed, including pesticide safety training programs for farmers, stringent enforcement of pesticide laws, and promoting integrated pest management and non-synthetic methods of pest control.

Changes in Perceptions and Practices of Farmers and Pesticide Retailers on Safer Pesticide Use and Alternatives: Impacts of a Community Intervention in Chitwan, Nepal

Unsafe use of hazardous pesticides is a neglected public health problem in developing countries. This survey evaluates the effects of a training program to increase awareness on harmful effects of pesticides and to enhance capacity for safe handling involving 57 trained farmers, 98 neighboring farmers, 94 control farmers, and 23 pesticide retailers from villages in Chitwan, Nepal. Knowledge and attitude-related variables improved in all 3 farmer groups, with a significant trend of better knowledge and attitude from trained to neighboring to control farmers (in 14/16 [87.5%] variables). In practice, there were significant differences among the groups with a trend from trained to neighboring to control farmers (in 10/26 [38.5%] variables).The pesticide retailers also improved on knowledge and practice. In conclusion, training farmers and pesticide retailers improved their knowledge and practice, with possible positive effect on neighboring farmers and control villages as well. An improved extension service to farmers is recommended.