Low affinity glucocorticoid binding site ligands as potential anti-fibrogenics

Nuclear Receptors in Liver Fibrosis

Nuclear receptors are ligand-activated transcription factors that regulate gene expression of a variety of key molecular signals involved in liver fibrosis. The primary cellular driver of liver fibrogenesis are activated hepatic stellate cells. Different NRs regulate the hepatic expression of pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrogenic cytokines that promote the transformation of hepatic stellate cells into fibrogenic myofibroblasts. Importantly, nuclear receptors regulate gene expression circuits that promote hepatic fibrogenesis and/or allow liver fibrosis regression. In this review, we highlight the direct and indirect influence of nuclear receptors on liver fibrosis, with a focus on hepatic stellate cells, and discuss potential therapeutic effects of nuclear receptor modulation in regard to anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects. Further research on nuclear receptors-related signaling may lead to the clinical development of effective anti-fibrotic therapies for patients with liver disease.

WITHDRAWN: Exosomes from microRNA-145-5p-modified HUCB-MSCs attenuate CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis via down-regulating FSCN1 expression

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Steroids, Pregnancy and Fetal Development

Maternal glucocorticoids critically rise during pregnancy reaching up to a 20-fold increase of mid-pregnancy concentrations. Concurrently, another steroid hormone, progesterone, increases. Progesterone, which shows structural similarities to glucocorticoids, can bind the intracellular glucocorticoid receptor, although with lower affinity. Progesterone is essential for the establishment and continuation of pregnancy and it is generally acknowledged to promote maternal immune tolerance to fetal alloantigens through a wealth of immunomodulatory mechanisms. Despite the potent immunomodulatory capacity of glucocorticoids, little is known about their role during pregnancy. Here we aim to compare general aspects of glucocorticoids and progesterone during pregnancy, including shared common steroidogenic pathways, plasma transporters, regulatory pathways, expression of receptors, and mechanisms of action in immune cells. It was recently acknowledged that progesterone receptors are not ubiquitously expressed on immune cells and that pivotal features of progesterone induced- maternal immune adaptations to pregnancy are mediated via the glucocorticoid receptor, including e.g., T regulatory cells expansion. We hypothesize that a tight equilibrium between progesterone and glucocorticoids is critically required and recapitulate evidence supporting that their disequilibrium underlie pregnancy complications. Such a disequilibrium can occur, e.g., after maternal stress perception, which triggers the release of glucocorticoids and impair progesterone secretion, resulting in intrauterine inflammation. These endocrine misbalance might be interconnected, as increase in glucocorticoid synthesis, e.g., upon stress, may occur in detriment of progesterone steroidogenesis, by depleting the common precursor pregnenolone. Abundant literature supports that progesterone deficiency underlies pregnancy complications in which immune tolerance is challenged. In these settings, it is largely yet undefined if and how glucocorticoids are affected. However, although progesterone immunomodulation during pregnancy appear to be chiefly mediated glucocorticoid receptors, excess glucocorticoids cannot compensate by progesterone deficiency, indicating that additional und still undercover mechanisms are at play.

Sustained Isoprostane E2 Elevation, Inflammation and Fibrosis after Acute Ischaemia-Reperfusion Injury Are Reduced by Pregnane X Receptor Activation

Liver grafts donated after cardiac death are increasingly used to expand the donor pool but are prone to ischaemic-type biliary lesions. The anti-inflammatory effects of the activated pregnane X receptor have previously been shown to be beneficial in a number of inflammatory liver conditions. However, its role in reducing peri-portal inflammation and fibrosis following ischaemia-reperfusion injury has not been investigated. Hepatic injury and its response to pregnane X receptor activation was examined after partial hepatic ischaemia-reperfusion injury induced by surgically clamping the left and middle lobar blood vessels in rats. Molecular and pathological changes in the liver were examined over the following 28 days. Ischaemia-reperfusion injury resulted in transient cholestasis associated with microvillar changes in biliary epithelial cell membranes and hepatocellular injury which resolved within days after reperfusion. However, in contrast to chemically-induced acute liver injuries, this was followed by sustained elevation in isoprostane E2, peri-portal inflammation and fibrosis that remained unresolved in the ischaemic reperfused lobe for at least 28 days after clamping. Administration of pregnenolone-16α-carbonitrile—a rodent-specific pregnane X receptor activator—resulted in significant reductions in cholestasis, hepatic injury, ischaemic lobe isoprostane E2 levels, peri-portal inflammation and fibrosis. Hepatic ischaemia-reperfusion injury therefore results in inflammatory and fibrotic changes that persist well beyond the initial ischaemic insult. Drug-mediated activation of the pregnane X receptor reduced these adverse changes in rats, suggesting that the pregnane X receptor is a viable drug target to reduce ischaemic-type biliary lesions in recipients of liver transplants donated after cardiac death.

An expandable donor-free supply of functional hepatocytes for toxicology

The B-13 cell is a readily expandable rat pancreatic acinar-like cell that differentiates on simple plastic culture substrata into replicatively-senescent hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells in response to glucocorticoid exposure. B-13/H cells express a variety of liver-enriched and liver-specific genes, many at levels similar to hepatocytes in vivo. Furthermore, the B-13/H phenotype is maintained for at least several weeks in vitro, in contrast to normal hepatocytes which rapidly de-differentiate under the same simple – or even under more complex – culture conditions. The origin of the B-13 cell line and the current state of knowledge regarding differentiation to B-13/H cells are presented, followed by a review of recent advances in the use of B-13/H cells in a variety of toxicity endpoints. B-13 cells therefore offer Toxicologists a cost-effective and easy to use system to study a range of toxicologically-related questions. Dissecting the mechanism(s) regulating the formation of B-13/H cell may also increase the likelihood of engineering a human equivalent, providing Toxicologists with an expandable donor-free supply of functional rat and human hepatocytes, invaluable additions to the tool kit of in vitro toxicity tests.

Diagnosis and Prediction of CKD Progression by Assessment of Urinary Peptides

Progressive CKD is generally detected at a late stage by a sustained decline in eGFR and/or the presence of significant albuminuria. With the aim of early and improved risk stratification of patients with CKD, we studied urinary peptides in a large cross-sectional multicenter cohort of 1990 individuals, including 522 with follow-up data, using proteome analysis. We validated that a previously established multipeptide urinary biomarker classifier performed significantly better in detecting and predicting progression of CKD than the current clinical standard, urinary albumin. The classifier was also more sensitive for identifying patients with rapidly progressing CKD. Compared with the combination of baseline eGFR and albuminuria (area under the curve [AUC]=0.758), the addition of the multipeptide biomarker classifier significantly improved CKD risk prediction (AUC=0.831) as assessed by the net reclassification index (0.303±-0.065; P<0.001) and integrated discrimination improvement (0.058±0.014; P<0.001). Correlation of individual urinary peptides with CKD stage and progression showed that the peptides that associated with CKD, irrespective of CKD stage or CKD progression, were either fragments of the major circulating proteins, suggesting failure of the glomerular filtration barrier sieving properties, or different collagen fragments, suggesting accumulation of intrarenal extracellular matrix. Furthermore, protein fragments associated with progression of CKD originated mostly from proteins related to inflammation and tissue repair. Results of this study suggest that urinary proteome analysis might significantly improve the current state of the art of CKD detection and outcome prediction and that identification of the urinary peptides allows insight into various ongoing pathophysiologic processes in CKD.

Enhancement of cell surface expression and receptor functions of membrane progestin receptor α (mPRα) by progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1): evidence for a role of PGRMC1 as an adaptor protein for steroid receptors

A variety of functions have been proposed for progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1), including acting as a component of a membrane progestin receptor and as an adaptor protein. Here we show that stable overexpression of human PGRMC1 in nuclear progesterone receptor (PR)-negative breast cancer cell lines causes increased expression of PGRMC1 and membrane progesterone receptor α (mPRα) on cell membranes that is associated with increased specific [(3)H]progesterone binding. The membrane progestin binding affinity and specificity were characteristic of mPRα, with a Kd of 4.7 nM and high affinity for the mPR-specific agonist, Org OD 02-0, and low affinity for corticosteroids. Progestin treatment caused activation of G proteins, further evidence for increased expression of functional mPRs on PGRMC1-transfected cell membranes. Immunocytochemical and coimmunoprecipitation studies showed a close association of PGRMC1 with mPRα in cell membranes. Transfection of PGRMC1 into spontaneously immortalized rat granulosa cells was associated with membrane expression of PGRMC1 and mPRα as well as antiapoptotic effects of progestins that were abolished after cotransfection with small interfering RNA for mPRα. These data demonstrate that PGRMC1 can act as an adaptor protein, transporting mPRα to the cell surface, and that the progestin binding and apoptotic functions previously ascribed to PGRMC1 are dependent on cell surface expression of mPRα. Collectively, the results suggest PGRMC1 and mPRα are components of a membrane progesterone receptor protein complex. Increased expression of estrogen receptor β was also observed in the membranes of PGRMC1-transfected cells, suggesting that PGRMC1 can act as an adaptor protein for multiple classes of steroid receptors.

Utility of B-13 progenitor-derived hepatocytes in hepatotoxicity and genotoxicity studies

AR42J-B-13 (B-13) cells form hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells in response to glucocorticoid treatment. To establish its utility in toxicity and genotoxicity screening, cytochrome P450 (CYP) induction, susceptibility to toxins, and transporter gene expression were examined. Conversion to B-13/H cells resulted in expression of male-specific CYP2C11 and sensitivity to methapyrilene. B-13/H cells constitutively expressed CYP1A, induced expression in response to an aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist, and activated benzo[α]pyrene to a DNA-damaging species. Functional CYP1A2 was not expressed due to deletions in the Cyp1a2 gene. A B-13 cell line stably expressing the human CYP1A2 was therefore engineered (B-13^−TR/h1A2) and the derived B-13/H cells expressed metabolically functional CYP1A2. Treatment with the cooked food mutagen 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo(4,5-b)pyridine resulted in a dose-dependent increase in DNA damage. B-13/H cells expressed constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) and induced CYP2B1 mRNA levels in response to classical CAR activators. However, translation to functional CYP2B1 protein was low and increased minimally by CAR activator treatment. B-13/H cells expressed high levels of pregnane X-receptor (PXR) and induced CYP3A1 in response to classical PXR activators. CYP3A genes were inducible, functional, and activated aflatoxin B1 to a DNA-damaging species. All 23 major hepatic transporters were induced when B-13 cells were converted to B-13/H cells, although in many cases, levels remained below those present in adult rat liver. However, bile salt export pump, Abcb1b, multidrug resistance-associated protein, and breast cancer resistance protein transporters were functional in B-13/H cells. These data demonstrate that the B-13 cell generates hepatocyte-like cells with functional drug metabolism and transporter activities, which can alone—or in a humanized form—be used to screen for hepatotoxic and genotoxic endpoints in vitro.

The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor, heart and neural crest derivatives expressed transcript 2, marks hepatic stellate cells in zebrafish: analysis of stellate cell entry into the developing liver

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are liver-specific mesenchymal cells that play vital roles in liver development and injury. Our knowledge of HSC biology is limited by the paucity of in vivo data. HSCs and sinusoidal endothelial cells (SECs) reside in close proximity, and interactions between these two cell types are potentially critical for their development and function. Here, we introduce a transgenic zebrafish line, Tg(hand2:EGFP), that labels HSCs. We find that zebrafish HSCs share many similarities with their mammalian counterparts, including morphology, location, lipid storage, gene-expression profile, and increased proliferation and matrix production, in response to an acute hepatic insult. Using the Tg(hand2:EGFP) line, we conducted time-course analyses during development to reveal that HSCs invade the liver after SECs do. However, HSCs still enter the liver in mutants that lack most endothelial cells, including SECs, indicating that SECs are not required for HSC differentiation or their entry into the liver. In the absence of SECs, HSCs become abnormally associated with hepatic biliary cells, suggesting that SECs influence HSC localization during liver development. We analyzed factors that regulate HSC development and show that inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor signaling significantly reduces the number of HSCs that enter the liver. We also performed a pilot chemical screen and identified two compounds that affect HSC numbers during development.

CONCLUSION

Our work provides the first comprehensive description of HSC development in zebrafish and reveals the requirement of SECs in HSC localization. The Tg(hand2:EGFP) line represents a unique tool for in vivo analysis and molecular dissection of HSC behavior.

Elevated progesterone receptor membrane component 1/sigma-2 receptor levels in lung tumors and plasma from lung cancer patients

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death, and there is an urgent need for new biomarkers and therapeutic targets. The progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (Pgrmc1) protein is upregulated in multiple types of cancer, and Pgrmc1 is required for tumor cell proliferation, motility and tumor formation in vivo. Furthermore, a small molecule inhibitor of Pgrmc1 suppressed the growth of lung, breast and cervical cancer cell lines. Recently, Pgrmc1 was identified as the sigma-2 receptor, a putative type of opioid receptor, and sigma-2 receptors are induced in cancers. However, Pgrmc1 shares no homology with known opioid or hormone receptors but is related to cytochrome b(5), and Pgrmc1 binds to heme and has reducing activity. In this study, we have analyzed Pgrmc1 levels in clinical tumor samples from squamous cell lung cancers (SCLC) and lung adenocarcinomas compared to corresponding nonmalignant tissue. Pgrmc1 levels increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) in 12/15 SCLC samples and was elevated in poorly differentiated tumors. Pgrmc1 was highly expressed in SCLC cell lines, and SCLC cell survival was inhibited by siRNA knockdown of Pgrmc1 or the Pgrmc1 inhibitor AG-205. In adenocarcinomas, 6/15 tumors significantly had elevated Pgrmc1 levels, which correlated with patient survival. Pgrmc1 localizes to secretory vesicles in cancer cells, and Pgrmc1 was secreted by lung cancer cells. Furthermore, Pgrmc1 was significantly elevated in the plasma of lung cancer patients compared to noncancer patients. Together, the results demonstrate that Pgrmc1 is a potential tumor and serum biomarker, as well as a therapeutic target, for lung cancer.

Serine/threonine protein kinase SGK1 in glucocorticoid-dependent transdifferentiation of pancreatic acinar cells to hepatocytes

Elevated glucocorticoid levels result in the transdifferentiation of pancreatic acinar cells into hepatocytes through a process that requires a transient repression of WNT signalling upstream of the induction of C/EBP-β. However, the mechanism by which glucocorticoid interacts with WNT signalling is unknown. A screen of microarray data showed that the serine/threonine protein kinase SGK1 (serum- and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1) was markedly induced in the model B-13 pancreatic rat acinar cell line after glucocorticoid treatment (which converts them into hepatocyte-like 'B-13/H' cells) and this was confirmed at the level of mRNA (notably an alternatively transcribed SGK1C form) and protein. Knockdown of SGK1 using an siRNA designed to target all variant transcripts inhibited glucocorticoid-dependent transdifferentiation, whereas overexpression of the human C isoform (and also the human SGK1F isoform, for which no orthologue in the rat has been identified) alone - but not the wild-type A form - inhibited distal WNT signalling Tcf/Lef transcription factor activity, and converted B-13 cells into B-13/H cells. These effects were lost when the kinase functions of SGK1C and SGK1F were mutated. Inhibition of SGK1 kinase activity also inhibited glucocorticoid-dependent transdifferentiation. Expression of SGK1C and SGK1F resulted in the appearance of phosphorylated β-catenin, and recombinant SGK1 was shown to directly phosphorylate purified β-catenin in vitro in an ATP-dependent reaction. These data therefore demonstrate a crucial role for SGK1 induction in B-13 cell transdifferentiation to B-13/H hepatocytes and suggest that direct phosphorylation of β-catenin by SGK1C represents the mechanism of crosstalk between glucocorticoid and WNT signalling pathways.

Glucocorticoid-dependent transdifferentiation of pancreatic progenitor cells into hepatocytes is dependent on transient suppression of WNT signalling

Developmentally, the pancreas and liver are closely related and pathological conditions – including elevated glucocorticoid levels – result in the appearance of hepatocytes in the pancreas. The role of the WNT signalling pathway in this process has been examined in the model transdifferentiating pancreatic acinar AR42J-B-13 (B-13) cell. Glucocorticoid treatment resulted in a transient loss of constitutive WNT3a expression, phosphorylation and depletion of β-catenin, loss of β-catenin nuclear localisation, and significant reductions in T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor (Tcf/Lef) transcriptional activity before overt changes in phenotype into hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells. A return to higher Tcf/Lef transcriptional activity correlated with the re-expression of WNT3a in B-13/H cells. β-catenin knock down alone substituted for and enhanced glucocorticoid-dependent transdifferentiation. Overexpression of a mutant β-catenin (pt-Xβ-cat) protein that blocked glucocorticoid-dependent suppression of Tcf/Lef activity resulted in inhibition of transdifferentiation. A small-molecule activator of Tcf/Lef transcription factors blocked glucocorticoid-dependent effects, as observed with pt-Xβ-cat expression. Quercetin – a Tcf/Lef inhibitor – did not promote transdifferentiation into B-13/H cells, but did potentiate glucocorticoid-mediated transdifferentiation. These data demonstrate that the transdifferentiation of B-13 cells into hepatocyte-like cells in response to glucocorticoid was dependent on the repression of constitutively active WNT signalling.