Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans attenuates neuroinflammation in symptomatic hSOD1(G93A) mice

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Miyako Bidens pilosa in a Mouse Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated BV-2 Microglia

Neuroinflammation is a fundamental feature in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and arises from the activation of astrocytes and microglial cells. Previously, we reported that Miyako Bidens pilosa extract (MBP) inhibited microglial activation and prolonged the life span in a human ALS-linked mutant superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1G93A) transgenic mouse model of ALS (G93A mice). Herein, we evaluated the effect of MBP on microglial activation in the spinal cord of G93A mice and lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells. The administration of MBP inhibited the upregulation of the M1-microglia/macrophage marker (interferon-γ receptor (IFN-γR)) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6) in G93A mice. However, MBP did not affect the increase in the M2-microglia/macrophage marker (IL-13R) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (transforming growth factor (TGF)-β and IL-10) in G93A mice. BV-2 cell exposure to MBP resulted in a decrease in 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium (MTT) reduction activity and bromodeoxyuridine incorporation, without an increase in the number of ethidium homodimer-1-stained dead cells. Moreover, MBP suppressed the production of lipopolysaccharide-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) in BV-2 cells. These results suggest that the selective suppression of M1-related pro-inflammatory cytokines is involved in the therapeutic potential of MBP in ALS model mice.

Utilization of Acupuncture and Herbal Ointment Instead of Skin Graft Surgery for the Treatment of Burn Injuries: A Case Series and Literature review

Skin graft surgery is a standard treatment that increases the survival rate of patients with burn injuries; however, it leaves many sequelae. Conventional external preparations for the treatment of burns also have various side effects. In this retrospective case study, we assessed the cases of four patients with topical third-degree burns who did not wish to undergo the skin graft surgeries recommended by medical doctors and were thus treated using traditional medicine alone. A Korean medicine doctor administered integrative traditional medicine treatment to the patients using acupuncture and herbal ointments. Analysis of the patients' treatment photographs, quantitative evaluation indices, and vivid narratives suggested that their skin recovered well without adverse effects. Traditional Korean medicine treatment, including acupuncture and herbal ointment treatment, can be a new alternative therapeutic strategy for the treatment of patients with topical burns who do not want to undergo skin graft surgery or who have higher risks for poor surgical outcomes.

Ginseng gintonin alleviates neurological symptoms in the G93A-SOD1 transgenic mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis through lysophosphatidic acid 1 receptor

Background

We recently showed that gintonin, an active ginseng ingredient, exhibits antibrain neurodegenerative disease effects including multiple target mechanisms such as antioxidative stress and antiinflammation via the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) receptors. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a spinal disease characterized by neurodegenerative changes in motor neurons with subsequent skeletal muscle paralysis and death. However, pathophysiological mechanisms of ALS are still elusive, and therapeutic drugs have not yet been developed. We investigate the putative alleviating effects of gintonin in ALS.

Methods

The G93A-SOD1 transgenic mouse ALS model was used. Gintonin (50 or 100 mg/kg/day, p.o.) administration started from week seven. We performed histological analyses, immunoblot assays, and behavioral tests.

Results

Gintonin extended mouse survival and relieved motor dysfunctions. Histological analyses of spinal cords revealed that gintonin increased the survival of motor neurons, expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factors, choline acetyltransferase, NeuN, and Nissl bodies compared with the vehicle control. Gintonin attenuated elevated spinal NAD(P) quinone oxidoreductase 1 expression and decreased oxidative stress-related ferritin, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1-immunoreactive microglia, S100β-immunoreactive astrocyte, and Olig2-immunoreactive oligodendrocytes compared with the control vehicle. Interestingly, we found that the spinal LPA1 receptor level was decreased, whereas gintonin treatment restored decreased LPA1 receptor expression levels in the G93A-SOD1 transgenic mouse, thereby attenuating neurological symptoms and histological deficits.

Conclusion

Gintonin-mediated symptomatic improvements of ALS might be associated with the attenuations of neuronal loss and oxidative stress via the spinal LPA1 receptor regulations. The present results suggest that the spinal LPA1 receptor is engaged in ALS, and gintonin may be useful for relieving ALS symptoms.

Protective Effects of Scolopendra Water Extract on Trimethyltin-Induced Hippocampal Neurodegeneration and Seizures in Mice

Trimethyltin (TMT) is an organotin compound with potent neurotoxic action characterized by neuronal degeneration in the hippocampus. This study evaluated the protective effects of a Scolopendra water extract (SWE) against TMT intoxication in hippocampal neurons, using both in vitro and in vivo model systems. Specifically, we examined the actions of SWE on TMT- (5 mM) induced cytotoxicity in primary cultures of mouse hippocampal neurons (7 days in vitro) and the effects of SWE on hippocampal degeneration in adult TMT- (2.6 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) treated C57BL/6 mice. We found that SWE pretreatment (0–100 μg/mL) significantly reduced TMT-induced cytotoxicity in cultured hippocampal neurons in a dose-dependent manner, as determined by lactate dehydrogenase and 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assays. Additionally, this study showed that perioral administration of SWE (5 mg/kg), from −6 to 0 days before TMT injection, significantly attenuated hippocampal cell degeneration and seizures in adult mice. Furthermore, quantitative analysis of Iba-1 (Allograft inflammatory factor 1)- and GFAP (Glial fibrillary acidic protein)-immunostained cells revealed a significant reduction in the levels of Iba-1- and GFAP-positive cell bodies in the dentate gyrus (DG) of mice treated with SWE prior to TMT injection. These data indicated that SWE pretreatment significantly protected the hippocampus against the massive activation of microglia and astrocytes elicited by TMT. In addition, our data showed that the SWE-induced reduction of immune cell activation was linked to a significant reduction in cell death and a significant improvement in TMT-induced seizure behavior. Thus, we conclude that SWE ameliorated the detrimental effects of TMT toxicity on hippocampal neurons, both in vivo and in vitro. Altogether, our findings hint at a promising pharmacotherapeutic use of SWE in hippocampal degeneration and dysfunction.

Complementary and alternative medicine for treating amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A narrative review

Background

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a rare neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by selective motor neuron cell death in the motor cortex, brainstem, and spinal cord. Two drugs for ALS, riluzole and edaravone, have been approved by FDA for the treatment of ALS patients. However, they have many side effects, and riluzole extends the patient's life by only 2-3 months. Therefore, ALS patients seek an effective therapy for treating the symptoms or delaying the progression of ALS. Based on this, we review the effects of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in ALS animals or patients to verify the efficacy of CAM in incurable diseases. For this review, we searched published papers focusing on the effect of CAM in pre-clinical and clinical study in ALS.

Methods

The search keywords included amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, acupuncture, herbal medicine, Traditional Chinese medicine, CAM, animals, and clinical study through electronic databases PubMed and Google Scholar from their inception until March 2019.

Results

In the ALS animal model, CAM modulated the immune system to increase motor function by reducing the expression levels of neuroinflammatory proteins in the spinal cord. Besides this, ALS patients treated with herbal medicine showed improved disease symptoms, but clinical trials with larger sample sizes are needed to develop a treatment with this herbal medicine.

Conclusion

This review shows that CAM may be useful for ALS treatment, but more evidence regarding the efficacy and molecular mechanisms is required to establish CAM as a good therapy for the treatment of ALS patients.

Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effect of Jaeumganghwa-Tang in an Animal Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Neuroinflammation is considered a critical factor in the pathologic mechanisms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This study examined the levels of neuroinflammatory proteins in the spinal cord of JGT-treated hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice to determine the effect of Jaeumganghwa-Tang (JGT) on neuroinflammation. Twelve 8-week-old male experimental mice were randomly allocated to three groups: a non-transgenic group, a hSOD1^G93A transgenic group, and a hSOD1^G93A transgenic group that received JGT 1 mg/g orally once daily for 6 weeks. After 6 weeks, the spinal cord tissues were analyzed for inflammatory proteins (Iba-1, toll-like receptor 4, and tumor necrosis factor-α) and oxidative stress-related proteins (transferrin, ferritin, HO1, and NQO1) by Western blot analysis. Administration of JGT significantly delayed motor function impairment and reduced oxidative stress in hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice. JGT effectively ameliorated neuroinflammation mechanisms by downregulating TLR4-related signaling proteins and improving iron homeostasis in the spinal cord of hSOD1^G93A mice. JGT could help to decrease neuroinflammation and protect neuronal cells by strengthening the immune response in the central nervous system. This is the first study to demonstrate the role of JGT in neuroinflammation in an animal model of ALS.

Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans Extract Suppresses Inflammatory and Neuropathic Pain In Vitro and In Vivo

Background

Sciatic nerve injury develops from a variety of pathological causes, including traumatic injury and neuroinflammatory disorders, which are accompanied by pathological changes that have a critical impact on neuropathic pain and locomotor activity. Extracts of Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans (SSM) are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of a wide range of neuropathic diseases, including lower back pain, peripheral neuropathy, and sciatic nerve injury. Although SSM shows anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticonvulsant activities, its diverse mechanisms of action remain unclear. Thus, the present study examined the effects of SSM in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

To estimate the anti-inflammatory effects of SSM, inflammatory conditions were induced using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW 264.7 cells, and inflammatory-related factors were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blotting analyses. Sciatic nerve crush injury (SNCI) was induced in rats using a surgical clip instrument. The effects of SSM in the SNCI model were evaluated in behavioral tests by calculating the sciatic functional index (SFI) and measuring thermal hyperalgesia sensitivity and by monitoring inflammatory factors expression in western blotting analyses.

Results

We observed the anti-inflammatory effects of SSM treatment both in vitro and in vivo. The PGE₂ and NO production were suppressed by SSM. Protein analyses indicated that expression of NF-κB and degradation of IκBα were suppressed by SSM treatment. In addition, the levels of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-6, and COX-2 expression were reduced by SSM treatment in RAW 264.7 cells and in the SNCI-induced animals. In behavioral studies, SSM treatment enhanced the SFI and improved the thermal sensitivity test results.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that SSM suppresses the production of inflammatory factors via the NF-κB pathway and accelerates the morphological and functional recovery of the peripheral nervous system. Hence, SSM may be a useful therapeutic candidate for treatment of neuropathic pain diseases.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Gamisoyo-San in an Animal Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Inflammation is considered a critical factor in the pathogenesis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We aimed to evaluate the effect of the herbal formula Gamisoyo-San (GSS) on the muscles of hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice, a mouse model of ALS, by examining the tissue expression of inflammation- and oxidative stress-related proteins. The mice were randomly divided into three groups: nontransgenic mice (non-Tg, n = 4), hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice (Tg, n = 4), and GSS-treated hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice (Tg+GSS, n = 4). Eight-week-old female hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice were fed GSS (1 mg/g body weight) for 6 weeks. Gastrocnemius (GA) tissues were analyzed for inflammatory proteins [CD11b and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)] and oxidative stress-related proteins [heme oxygenase 1 (HO1) and ferritin] by western blot analysis. Administration of GSS significantly reduced the level of inflammation- and oxidative stress-related proteins in hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice. GSS ameliorated inflammation by downregulating TLR4 and CD11b expression and regulated iron homeostasis in the GA muscle of hSOD1^G93A mice. GSS could help reduce inflammation by regulating immune reactions in patients with ALS. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate the effect of GSS on muscle inflammation in an ALS animal model.

Animal Toxins as Therapeutic Tools to Treat Neurodegenerative Diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases affect millions of individuals worldwide. So far, no disease-modifying drug is available to treat patients, making the search for effective drugs an urgent need. Neurodegeneration is triggered by the activation of several cellular processes, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, neuroinflammation, aging, aggregate formation, glutamatergic excitotoxicity, and apoptosis. Therefore, many research groups aim to identify drugs that may inhibit one or more of these events leading to neuronal cell death. Venoms are fruitful natural sources of new molecules, which have been relentlessly enhanced by evolution through natural selection. Several studies indicate that venom components can exhibit selectivity and affinity for a wide variety of targets in mammalian systems. For instance, an expressive number of natural peptides identified in venoms from animals, such as snakes, scorpions, bees, and spiders, were shown to lessen inflammation, regulate glutamate release, modify neurotransmitter levels, block ion channel activation, decrease the number of protein aggregates, and increase the levels of neuroprotective factors. Thus, these venom components hold potential as therapeutic tools to slow or even halt neurodegeneration. However, there are many technological issues to overcome, as venom peptides are hard to obtain and characterize and the amount obtained from natural sources is insufficient to perform all the necessary experiments and tests. Fortunately, technological improvements regarding heterologous protein expression, as well as peptide chemical synthesis will help to provide enough quantities and allow chemical and pharmacological enhancements of these natural occurring compounds. Thus, the main focus of this review is to highlight the most promising studies evaluating animal toxins as therapeutic tools to treat a wide variety of neurodegenerative conditions, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, brain ischemia, glaucoma, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis.

Inhibition of melanogenesis by jineol from Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans via MAP-Kinase mediated MITF downregulation and the proteasomal degradation of tyrosinase

In this study, the authors investigated the anti-melanogenic effects of 3,8-dihydroxyquinoline (jineol) isolated from Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans, the mechanisms responsible for its inhibition of melanogenesis in melan-a cells, and its antioxidant efficacy. Mushroom tyrosinase activities and melanin contents were determined in melan-a cells, and the protein and mRNA levels of MITF, tyrosinase, TYRP-1, and TYRP-2 were assessed. Jineol exhibited significant, concentration-dependent antioxidant effects as determined by DPPH, ABTS, CUPRAC, and FRAP assays. Jineol significantly inhibited mushroom tyrosinase activity by functioning as an uncompetitive inhibitor, and markedly inhibited melanin production and intracellular tyrosinase activity in melan-a cells. In addition, jineol abolished the expressions of tyrosinase, TYRP-1, TYRP-2, and MITF, thereby blocking melanin production and interfering with the phosphorylations of ERK1/2 and p38. Furthermore, specific inhibitors of ERK1/2 and p38 prevented melanogenesis inhibition by jineol, and the proteasome inhibitor (MG-132) prevented jineol-induced reductions in cellular tyrosinase levels. Taken together, jineol was found to stimulate MAP-kinase (ERK1/2 and p38) phosphorylation and the proteolytic degradation pathway, which led to the degradations of MITF and tyrosinase, and to suppress the productions of melanin.

Antithrombotic and antiplatelet activities of small-molecule alkaloids from Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans

The aim of this study was to discover small-molecule anticoagulants from Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans (SSM). A new acylated polyamine (1) and a new sulfated quinoline alkaloid (2) were isolated from SSM. Treatment with the new alkaloids 1, 2, and indole acetic acid 4 prolonged the activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time and inhibited the activity and production of thrombin and activated factor X. Furthermore, compounds 1, 2, and 4 inhibited thrombin-catalyzed fibrin polymerization and platelet aggregation. In accordance with these potential in vitro antiplatelet activities, compounds 1, 2, and 4 showed enhanced antithrombotic effects in an in vivo pulmonary embolism and arterial thrombosis model. Compounds 1, 2, and 4 also elicited anticoagulant effects in mice. Collectively, this study may serve as the groundwork for commercializing SSM or compounds 1, 2, and 4 as functional food components for the prevention and treatment of pathogenic conditions and serve as new scaffolds for the development of anticoagulants.

The effects of bee venom acupuncture on the central nervous system and muscle in an animal hSOD1G93A mutant

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is caused by the degeneration of lower and upper motor neurons, leading to muscle paralysis and respiratory failure. However, there is no effective drug or therapy to treat ALS. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), including acupuncture, pharmacopuncture, herbal medicine, and massage is popular due to the significant limitations of conventional therapy. Bee venom acupuncture (BVA), also known as one of pharmacopunctures, has been used in Oriental medicine to treat inflammatory diseases. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of BVA on the central nervous system (CNS) and muscle in symptomatic hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice, an animal model of ALS. Our findings show that BVA at ST36 enhanced motor function and decreased motor neuron death in the spinal cord compared to that observed in hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with BV. Furthermore, BV treatment at ST36 eliminated signaling downstream of inflammatory proteins such as TLR4 in the spinal cords of symptomatic hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice. However, i.p. treatment with BV reduced the levels of TNF-α and Bcl-2 expression in the muscle hSOD1^G93A transgenic mice. Taken together, our findings suggest that BV pharmacopuncture into certain acupoints may act as a chemical stimulant to activate those acupoints and subsequently engage the endogenous immune modulatory system in the CNS in an animal model of ALS.

Neural mechanisms and potential treatment of epilepsy and its complications

The factors underlying epilepsy are multifaceted, but recent research suggests that the brain's neural circuits, which play a key role in controlling the balance between epileptic and antiepileptic factors, may lie at the heart of epilepsy. This article provides a comprehensive review of the neural mechanisms and potential treatment of intractable epilepsy from neural inflammatory responses, melanocortin circuits in brain and pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus. Further studies should be undertaken to elucidate the nature of neural circuits so that we may more effectively apply these new preventive and symptomatic therapies to the patient suffering from medically refractory seizures and its complications.