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Bai YZ, Sun Y, Liu YG, Zhang HL, An TQ, Wang Q, Tian ZJ, Qiao X, Cai XH, Tang YD. Minor envelope proteins from GP2a to GP4 contribute to the spread pattern and yield of type 2 PRRSV in MARC-145 cells. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024; 14:1376725. [PMID: 38590440 PMCID: PMC10999527 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1376725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
In China, porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) vaccines are widely used. These vaccines, which contain inactivated and live attenuated vaccines (LAVs), are produced by MARC-145 cells derived from the monkey kidney cell line. However, some PRRSV strains in MARC-145 cells have a low yield. Here, we used two type 2 PRRSV strains (CH-1R and HuN4) to identify the genes responsible for virus yield in MARC-145 cells. Our findings indicate that the two viruses have different spread patterns, which ultimately determine their yield. By replacing the viral envelope genes with a reverse genetics system, we discovered that the minor envelope proteins, from GP2a to GP4, play a crucial role in determining the spread pattern and yield of type 2 PRRSV in MARC-145 cells. The cell-free transmission pattern of type 2 PRRSV appears to be more efficient than the cell-to-cell transmission pattern. Overall, these findings suggest that GP2a to GP4 contributes to the spread pattern and yield of type 2 PRRSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Zhe Bai
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
- Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Pharmaceutical Development, Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Yue Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yong-Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Hong-Liang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Tong-Qing An
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Qian Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Zhi-Jun Tian
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xinyuan Qiao
- Heilongjiang Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Pharmaceutical Development, Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
| | - Xue-Hui Cai
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
- Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Heilongjiang Provincial Research Center for Veterinary Biomedicine, Harbin, China
| | - Yan-Dong Tang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
- Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Heilongjiang Provincial Research Center for Veterinary Biomedicine, Harbin, China
- Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Heilongjiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Veterinary Immunology, Harbin, China
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2
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Li XM, Wang SP, Wang JY, Tang T, Wan B, Zeng L, Wang J, Chu BB, Yang GY, Pan JJ. RhoA suppresses pseudorabies virus replication in vitro. Virol J 2023; 20:264. [PMID: 37968757 PMCID: PMC10652432 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-023-02229-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The porcine pseudorabies virus (PRV) is one of the most devastating pathogens and brings great economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. Viruses are intracellular parasites that have evolved numerous strategies to subvert and utilize different host processes for their life cycle. Among the different systems of the host cell, the cytoskeleton is one of the most important which not only facilitate viral invasion and spread into neighboring cells, but also help viruses to evade the host immune system. RhoA is a key regulator of cytoskeleton system that may participate in virus infection. In this study, we characterized the function of RhoA in the PRV replication by chemical drugs treatment, gene knockdown and gene over-expression strategy. Inhibition of RhoA by specific inhibitor and gene knockdown promoted PRV proliferation. On the contrary, overexpression of RhoA or activation of RhoA by chemical drug inhibited PRV infection. Besides, our data demonstrated that PRV infection induced the disruption of actin stress fiber, which was consistent with previous report. In turn, the actin specific inhibitor cytochalasin D markedly disrupted the normal fibrous structure of intracellular actin cytoskeleton and decreased the PRV replication, suggesting that actin cytoskeleton polymerization contributed to PRV replication in vitro. In summary, our data displayed that RhoA was a host restriction factor that inhibited PRV replication, which may deepen our understanding the pathogenesis of PRV and provide further insight into the prevention of PRV infection and the development of anti-viral drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Man Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Shi-Ping Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Jin-Yuan Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Ting Tang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Bo Wan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Lei Zeng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Jiang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Bei-Bei Chu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
| | - Guo-Yu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Animal Husbandry and Economy, Zhengzhou, 450047, China
| | - Jia-Jia Pan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biochemistry and Nutrition, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs of the People's Republic of China, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Growth and Development of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Animal Pathogens and Biosafety, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, China.
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Kombiah S, Senthilkumar D, Kumar M, Sivasankar P, Singh VP, Rajukumar K. Growth kinetics of an Indian isolate of highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in MARC-145 cells. Virusdisease 2022; 33:208-214. [DOI: 10.1007/s13337-022-00773-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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4
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Duan H, Dong H, Wu S, Ren J, Zhang M, Chen C, Du Y, Zhang G, Zhang A. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus non-structural protein 4 cleaves guanylate-binding protein 1 via its cysteine proteinase activity to antagonize GBP1 antiviral effect. Vet Res 2022; 53:55. [PMID: 35804432 PMCID: PMC9264745 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-022-01071-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is a highly infectious disease caused by PRRS virus (PRRSV) that causes great economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. PRRSV has been recognized to modulate the host antiviral interferon (IFN) response and downstream interferon-stimulated gene expression to intercept the antiviral effect of host cells. Guanylate-binding proteins (GBPs) are IFN-inducible GTPases that exert broad antiviral activity against several DNA and RNA viruses, of which GBP1 is considered to play a pivotal role. However, the role of GBP1 in PRRSV replication remains unknown. The present study showed that overexpression of GBP1 notably inhibited PRRSV infection, while the knockdown of endogenous GBP1 promoted PRRSV infection. The K51 and R48 residues of GBP1 were essential for the suppression of PRRSV replication. Furthermore, GBP1 abrogated PRRSV replication by disrupting normal fibrous actin structures, which was indispensable for effective PRRSV replication. By using a co-immunoprecipitation assay, we found that GBP1 interacted with the non-structural protein 4 (nsp4) protein of PRRSV, and this interaction was mapped to the N-terminal globular GTPase domain of GBP1 and amino acids 1–69 of nsp4. PRRSV infection significantly downregulated GBP1 protein expression in Marc-145 cells, and nsp4, a 3C-like serine proteinase, was responsible for GBP1 cleavage, and the cleaved site was located at glutamic acid 338 of GBP1. Additionally, the anti-PRRSV activity of GBP1 was antagonized by nsp4. Taken together, these findings expand our understanding of the sophisticated interaction between PRRSV and host cells, PRRSV pathogenesis and its mechanisms of evading the host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Duan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Haoxin Dong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China.,International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Shuya Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China.,International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Jiahui Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China.,International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Mingfang Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Chuangwei Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Yongkun Du
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China.,International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Gaiping Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China.,International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China
| | - Angke Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China. .,International Joint Research Center of National Animal Immunology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450046, Henan, China.
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5
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Sang Y, Miller LC, Nelli RK, Giménez-Lirola LG. Harness Organoid Models for Virological Studies in Animals: A Cross-Species Perspective. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:725074. [PMID: 34603253 PMCID: PMC8481363 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.725074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal models and cell culture in vitro are primarily used in virus and antiviral immune research. Whereas the limitation of these models to recapitulate the viral pathogenesis in humans has been made well aware, it is imperative to introduce more efficient systems to validate emerging viruses in both domestic and wild animals. Organoids ascribe to representative miniatures of organs (i.e., mini-organs), which are derived from three-dimensional culture of stem cells under respective differential conditions mimicking endogenous organogenetic niches. Organoids have broadened virological studies in the human context, particularly in recent uses for COVID19 research. This review examines the status and potential for cross-species applied organotypic culture in validating emerging animal, particularly zoonotic, viruses in domestic and wild animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongming Sang
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, College of Agriculture, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Laura C Miller
- Virus and Prion Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Rahul K Nelli
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Luis Gabriel Giménez-Lirola
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
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6
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Liang Z, Wang L, Wu H, Singh D, Zhang X. Integrative analysis of microRNA and mRNA expression profiles in MARC-145 cells infected with PRRSV. Virus Genes 2020; 56:610-620. [PMID: 32785889 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-020-01786-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) causes tremendous economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. miRNAs are crucial regulators of gene expression and a wide range of complex interactions of miRNAs-mRNAs is possible during virus infection. However, there is no comprehensive integrated study of miRNA and mRNA networks in MARC-145 cells after infection with PRRSV. We analyzed the differential expressions, co-relations, annotations, and putative functions of miRNA and mRNA networks in PRRSV-infected MARC-145 cells. Based on the filtering criterion, 22 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRs) (15 up- and 7 downregulated) were filtered out. miRNA-mRNA interaction networks were constructed. For the 18 selected miRNAs, 390 potential target genes were predicted from the differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRs). GO and KEGG pathway annotations predicted 34 KEGG pathways, 12 of which are known to be involved in virus infection. Real-time PCR validated the RNA-seq results. Our analysis showed that miR-27a-5p and miR-21-3p downregulate the expression of two of their potential target genes-SPARC, CLIC1, and cofilin-1, COX7A2, respectively. Further experiments proved that miR-21-3p and miR-27a-5p can promote PRRSV replication significantly. It is the first report that these two miRNAs participate in the interaction of host cells with PRRSV. Our results provide insights into the role of miRNAs in response to PRRSV infection, which will aid the research for developing novel therapies against PRRSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenpu Liang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Liang Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Hui Wu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Deepali Singh
- School of Biotechnology, Gautam Buddha University, Greater Noida, 201312, India
| | - Xiaoxia Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, 450000, China.
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7
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Hernandez Reyes Y, Provost C, Traesel CK, Jacques M, Gagnon CA. Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae culture supernatant antiviral effect against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus occurs prior to the viral genome replication and transcription through actin depolymerization. J Med Microbiol 2018; 67:249-264. [DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yenney Hernandez Reyes
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine et avicole (CRIPA) et Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses en production animale (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Chantale Provost
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine et avicole (CRIPA) et Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses en production animale (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Carolina Kist Traesel
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine et avicole (CRIPA) et Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses en production animale (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Mario Jacques
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine et avicole (CRIPA) et Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses en production animale (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - Carl A. Gagnon
- Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine et avicole (CRIPA) et Groupe de recherche sur les maladies infectieuses en production animale (GREMIP), Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada
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8
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Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus envelope (E) protein interacts with tubulin. Vet Microbiol 2017; 211:51-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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9
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Rahe MC, Murtaugh MP. Mechanisms of Adaptive Immunity to Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus. Viruses 2017; 9:v9060148. [PMID: 28608816 PMCID: PMC5490824 DOI: 10.3390/v9060148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The adaptive immune response is necessary for the development of protective immunity against infectious diseases. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), a genetically heterogeneous and rapidly evolving RNA virus, is the most burdensome pathogen of swine health and wellbeing worldwide. Viral infection induces antigen-specific immunity that ultimately clears the infection. However, the resulting immune memory, induced by virulent or attenuated vaccine viruses, is inconsistently protective against diverse viral strains. The immunological mechanisms by which primary and memory protection are generated and used are not well understood. Here, we summarize current knowledge regarding cellular and humoral components of the adaptive immune response to PRRSV infection that mediate primary and memory immune protection against viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Rahe
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.
| | - Michael P Murtaugh
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, 1971 Commonwealth Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.
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10
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Diseases Primarily Affecting the Reproductive System. Vet Med (Auckl) 2017. [PMCID: PMC7150237 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7020-5246-0.00018-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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11
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Jans J, elMoussaoui H, de Groot R, de Jonge MI, Ferwerda G. Actin- and clathrin-dependent mechanisms regulate interferon gamma release after stimulation of human immune cells with respiratory syncytial virus. Virol J 2016; 13:52. [PMID: 27004689 PMCID: PMC4802911 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-016-0506-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) can cause recurrent and severe respiratory tract infections. Cytoskeletal proteins are often involved during viral infections, either for cell entry or the initiation of the immune response. The importance of actin and clathrin dynamics for cell entry and the initiation of the cellular immune response against RSV in human immune cells is not known yet. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of actin and clathrin on cell entry of RSV and the subsequent effect on T cell activation and interferon gamma release in human immune cells. Methods Peripheral blood mononuclear cells and purified monocytes were isolated from healthy adults and stimulated in vitro with RSV. Actin and clathrin dynamics were inhibited with respectively cytochalasin D and chlorpromazine. T cell receptor signaling was inhibited with cyclosporin A. Flow cytometry was used to determine the role of actin and clathrin on cell entry and T cell activation by RSV. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to investigate the contribution of actin and clathrin on the release of interferon gamma. Results Cell entry, virus gene transcription and interferon gamma release are actin-dependent. Post-endocytic processes like the increased expression of major histocompatibility complex II on monocytes , T cell activation and the release of interferon gamma are clathrin-dependent. Finally, T cell receptor signaling affects T cell activation, whereas soluble interleukin 18 is dispensable. Conclusion Analysis of cell entry and interferon gamma release after infection with RSV reveals the importance of actin- and clathrin-dependent signaling in human immune cells. Insights into the cellular biology of the human immune response against respiratory syncytial virus will provide a better understanding of disease pathogenesis and may prove useful in the development of preventive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jop Jans
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Science, Radboud university medical center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hicham elMoussaoui
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Science, Radboud university medical center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald de Groot
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Science, Radboud university medical center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marien I de Jonge
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Science, Radboud university medical center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gerben Ferwerda
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Science, Radboud university medical center, P.O. Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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12
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Ge M, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Liu T, Zeng F. Propagation of field highly pathogenic porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in MARC-145 cells is promoted by cell apoptosis. Virus Res 2016; 213:322-331. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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13
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Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae possesses an antiviral activity against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98434. [PMID: 24878741 PMCID: PMC4039538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Pigs are often colonized by more than one bacterial and/or viral species during respiratory tract infections. This phenomenon is known as the porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) are pathogens that are frequently involved in PRDC. The main objective of this project was to study the in vitro interactions between these two pathogens and the host cells in the context of mixed infections. To fulfill this objective, PRRSV permissive cell lines such as MARC-145, SJPL, and porcine alveolar macrophages (PAM) were used. A pre-infection with PRRSV was performed at 0.5 multiplicity of infection (MOI) followed by an infection with App at 10 MOI. Bacterial adherence and cell death were compared. Results showed that PRRSV pre-infection did not affect bacterial adherence to the cells. PRRSV and App co-infection produced an additive cytotoxicity effect. Interestingly, a pre-infection of SJPL and PAM cells with App blocked completely PRRSV infection. Incubation of SJPL and PAM cells with an App cell-free culture supernatant is also sufficient to significantly block PRRSV infection. This antiviral activity is not due to LPS but rather by small molecular weight, heat-resistant App metabolites (<1 kDa). The antiviral activity was also observed in SJPL cells infected with swine influenza virus but to a much lower extent compared to PRRSV. More importantly, the PRRSV antiviral activity of App was also seen with PAM, the cells targeted by the virus in vivo during infection in pigs. The antiviral activity might be due, at least in part, to the production of interferon γ. The use of in vitro experimental models to study viral and bacterial co-infections will lead to a better understanding of the interactions between pathogens and their host cells, and could allow the development of novel prophylactic and therapeutic tools.
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14
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Zhao C, Liu S, Li C, Yang L, Zu Y. In vitro evaluation of the antiviral activity of the synthetic epigallocatechin gallate analog-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) palmitate against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus. Viruses 2014; 6:938-50. [PMID: 24566281 PMCID: PMC3939490 DOI: 10.3390/v6020938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) palmitate was synthesized and its anti-porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) activity was studied. Specifically, EGCG palmitate was evaluated for its ability to inhibit PRRSV infection in MARC-145 cells when administered as pre-, post-, or co-treatment. EGCG and ribavirin were used as controls. The results showed that a 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC50) of EGCG, EGCG palmitate, and ribavirin was achieved at 2,359.71, 431.42, and 94.06 μM, respectively. All three drugs inhibited PRRSV in a dose-dependent manner regardless of the treatment protocol. EGCG palmitate exhibited higher cytotoxicity than EGCG, but lower cytotoxicity than ribavirin. EGCG palmitate anti-PRRSV activity was significantly higher than that of EGCG and ribavirin, both as pre-treatment and post-treatment. Under the former conditions and a tissue culture infectious dose of 10 and 100, the selectivity index (SI) of EGCG palmitate in the inhibition of PRRSV was 3.8 and 2.9 times higher than that of ribavirin when administered as a pre-treatment, while the SI of EGCG palmitate in the inhibition of PRRSV was 3.0 and 1.9 times higher than ribavirin when administered as a post-treatment. Therefore, EGCG palmitate is potentially effective as an anti-PRRSV agent and thus of interest to the pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunjian Zhao
- State Engineering Laboratory for Bio-Resource Eco-Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Shuaihua Liu
- State Engineering Laboratory for Bio-Resource Eco-Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Chunying Li
- State Engineering Laboratory for Bio-Resource Eco-Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Lei Yang
- State Engineering Laboratory for Bio-Resource Eco-Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
| | - Yuangang Zu
- State Engineering Laboratory for Bio-Resource Eco-Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China.
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Highly divergent strains of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus incorporate multiple isoforms of nonstructural protein 2 into virions. J Virol 2013; 87:13456-65. [PMID: 24089566 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02435-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral structural proteins form the critical intermediary between viral infection cycles within and between hosts, function to initiate entry, participate in immediate early viral replication steps, and are major targets for the host adaptive immune response. We report the identification of nonstructural protein 2 (nsp2) as a novel structural component of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) particle. A set of custom α-nsp2 antibodies targeting conserved epitopes within four distinct regions of nsp2 (the PLP2 protease domain [OTU], the hypervariable domain [HV], the putative transmembrane domain [TM], and the C-terminal region [C]) were obtained commercially and validated in PRRSV-infected cells. Highly purified cell-free virions of several PRRSV strains were isolated through multiple rounds of differential density gradient centrifugation and analyzed by immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) and Western blot assays using the α-nsp2 antibodies. Purified viral preparations were found to contain pleomorphic, predominantly spherical virions of uniform size (57.9 nm ± 8.1 nm diameter; n = 50), consistent with the expected size of PRRSV particles. Analysis by IEM indicated the presence of nsp2 associated with the viral particle of diverse strains of PRRSV. Western blot analysis confirmed the presence of nsp2 in purified viral samples and revealed that multiple nsp2 isoforms were associated with the virion. Finally, a recombinant PRRSV genome containing a myc-tagged nsp2 was used to generate purified virus, and these particles were also shown to harbor myc-tagged nsp2 isoforms. Together, these data identify nsp2 as a virion-associated structural PRRSV protein and reveal that nsp2 exists in or on viral particles as multiple isoforms.
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16
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Gao L, Zhang W, Sun Y, Yang Q, Ren J, Liu J, Wang H, Feng WH. Cryptoporus volvatus extract inhibits porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 2013; 8:e63767. [PMID: 23704937 PMCID: PMC3660591 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is an important arterivirus that can cause significant losses in swine industry. At present, there are no adequate control strategies against PRRSV. Thus, there is an urgent need for new treatment regimens that have efficacious antiviral activity to compensate for vaccines. Cryptoporus volvatus commonly serves as an anti-infective agent in Tradational Chinese Medicines. In this report, we exploited whether the aqueous extract from the fruiting body of Cryptoporus volvatus had the potential to inhibit PRRSV infection. Our results showed that the extract significantly inhibited PRRSV infection by repressing virus entry, viral RNA expression, and possibly viral protein synthesis, cell-to-cell spread, and releasing of virus particles. However, it did not block PRRSV binding to cells. Further studies confirmed that the extract directly inhibited PRRSV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) activity, thus interfering with PRRSV RNA and protein synthesis. More importantly, the extract efficiently inhibited highly pathologic PRRSV (HP-PRRSV) infection in vivo, reduced virus load in serum, and increased the survival rate of pigs inoculated with HP-PRRSV strain. Collectively, our findings imply that the aqueous extract from the fruiting body of Cryptoporus volvatus has the potential to be used for anti-PRRSV therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Weiwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yipeng Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Qian Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jinhua Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Hexiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (WHF); (HW)
| | - Wen-hai Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (WHF); (HW)
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17
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Liu K, Feng X, Ma Z, Luo C, Zhou B, Cao R, Huang L, Miao D, Pang R, He D, Lian X, Chen P. Antiviral activity of phage display selected peptides against Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in vitro. Virology 2012; 432:73-80. [PMID: 22743126 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Revised: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome is an important infectious disease of pigs and has a significant harmful effect on the livestock industry, especially in China. PRRSV ORF1b gene encodes primary proteins which play a vital role during PRRSV replication. In this paper, various 12-amino-acid peptides were displayed. These peptides could bind to the polymerase and helicase of PRRSV ORF1b protein, respectively, in which p9 exerted the highest antiviral activity with an IC50 of 56 μM, and the minimum toxicity to cells. It was proved that p9 inhibited PRRSV replication in infected MARC-145 cells in a dose-dependent manner, and the amino acid sequence of HRILMRIR was important for antiviral activity of p9. Also, p9 could bind to the cell membrane and penetrated into cells. These result suggested that p9 might be a potential therapeutic drug for PRRSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Diagnostic & Immunology, Department of Veterinary Medicine College, Nanjing Agricultural University, YiFu 4037, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, China
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18
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Shi X, Wang L, Zhi Y, Xing G, Zhao D, Deng R, Zhang G. Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) could be sensed by professional beta interferon-producing system and had mechanisms to inhibit this action in MARC-145 cells. Virus Res 2010; 153:151-6. [PMID: 20692306 PMCID: PMC7114505 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2010.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Revised: 07/24/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) causes an economically important disease in swine-producing area, and interferon beta (IFN-β) is the first responder against the animal virus infection. However, whether PRRSV could induce the production of IFN-β is controversial. In this paper, we first time found that PRRSV could phosphorylate IFN-regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) and weakly activate the IFN-β promoter in MARC-145 cells in early infection, but the activations of IRF-3 and IFN-β promoter were rapidly inhibited in the following infection. Furthermore, which components or products of the invading PRRSV cause PRRSV to inhibit IFN-β promoter activity attracted our attentions. The obtained results showed that PRRSV nsp1 could inhibit Poly(I:C)-induced IFN-β promoter activity in MARC-145 cells by down-regulating the protein level of IRF-3 and inhibiting the phosphorylation of IRF-3. In conclusion, our results suggested that PRRSV could be sensed by professional IFN-β-producing system and had mechanisms to inhibit this action in MARC-145 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xibao Shi
- Henan Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Immunology, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou 450002, China
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19
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The role of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus structural and non-structural proteins in virus pathogenesis. Anim Health Res Rev 2010; 11:135-63. [DOI: 10.1017/s1466252310000034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPorcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is an economically devastating viral disease affecting the swine industry worldwide. The etiological agent, PRRS virus (PRRSV), possesses a RNA viral genome with nine open reading frames (ORFs). The ORF1a and ORF1b replicase-associated genes encode the polyproteins pp1a and pp1ab, respectively. The pp1a is processed in nine non-structural proteins (nsps): nsp1α, nsp1β, and nsp2 to nsp8. Proteolytic cleavage of pp1ab generates products nsp9 to nsp12. The proteolytic pp1a cleavage products process and cleave pp1a and pp1ab into nsp products. The nsp9 to nsp12 are involved in virus genome transcription and replication. The 3′ end of the viral genome encodes four minor and three major structural proteins. The GP2a, GP3and GP4(encoded by ORF2a, 3 and 4), are glycosylated membrane associated minor structural proteins. The fourth minor structural protein, the E protein (encoded by ORF2b), is an unglycosylated membrane associated protein. The viral envelope contains two major structural proteins: a glycosylated major envelope protein GP5(encoded by ORF5) and an unglycosylated membrane M protein (encoded by ORF6). The third major structural protein is the nucleocapsid N protein (encoded by ORF7). All PRRSV non-structural and structural proteins are essential for virus replication, and PRRSV infectivity is relatively intolerant to subtle changes within the structural proteins. PRRSV virulence is multigenic and resides in both the non-structural and structural viral proteins. This review discusses the molecular characteristics, biological and immunological functions of the PRRSV structural and nsps and their involvement in the virus pathogenesis.
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Cafruny WA, Duman RG, Rowland RR, Nelson EA, Wong GH. Antibiotic-Mediated Inhibition of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) Infection: A Novel Quinolone Function Which Potentiates the Antiviral Cytokine Response in MARC-145 Cells and Pig Macrophages. Virology (Auckl) 2008. [DOI: 10.4137/vrt.s527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is an economically significant agent for which there currently are no effective treatments. Development of antiviral agents for PRRSV as well as many other viruses has been limited by toxicity of known antiviral compounds. In contrast, antibiotics for non-virus microbial infections have been widely useful, in part because of their acceptable toxicity in animals. We report here the discovery that the quinolone-containing compound Plasmocin™, as well as the quinolones nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin, have potent anti-PRRSV activity in vitro. PRRSV replication was inhibited by these antibiotics in both cultured MARC-145 cells and cultured primary alveolar porcine macrophages (PAMs). Furthermore, sub-optimal concentrations of nalidixic acid synergized with antiviral cytokines (AK-2 or IFN-γ) to quantitatively and qualitatively inhibit PRRSV replication in MARC-145 cells or PAMs. The antiviral activity of Plasmocin and nalidixic acid correlated with reduced actin expression in MARC-145 cells. Replication of the related lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV) was also inhibited in primary mouse macrophages by Plasmocin. These results are significant to the development of antiviral strategies with potentially reduced toxicity, and provide a model system to better understand regulation of arterivirus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A. Cafruny
- Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark St., Vermillion, S.D. 57069
| | - Richard G. Duman
- Sanford School of Medicine, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark St., Vermillion, S.D. 57069
| | - Raymond R. Rowland
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, L-229 Mosier Hall, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506
| | - Eric A. Nelson
- Department of Veterinary Science/ADRDL, North Campus Drive, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007
| | - Grace H. Wong
- Actokine Therapeutics, 12 Middlesex Rd. #411, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
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Delputte PL, Van Breedam W, Delrue I, Oetke C, Crocker PR, Nauwynck HJ. Porcine arterivirus attachment to the macrophage-specific receptor sialoadhesin is dependent on the sialic acid-binding activity of the N-terminal immunoglobulin domain of sialoadhesin. J Virol 2007; 81:9546-50. [PMID: 17567703 PMCID: PMC1951444 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00569-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The sialic acid-binding lectin sialoadhesin (Sn) is a macrophage-restricted receptor for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). To investigate the importance of pSn sialic acid-binding activity for PRRSV infection, an R(116)-to-E mutation was introduced in the predicted sialic acid-binding domain of pSn, resulting in a mutant, pSn(RE), that could not bind sialic acids. PSn, but not pSn(RE), allowed PRRSV binding and internalization. These data show that the sialic acid-binding activity of pSn is essential for PRRSV attachment to pSn and thus identifies the variable, N-terminal domain of Sn as a PRRSV binding domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter L Delputte
- Laboratory of Virology, Department Virology, Parasitology, and Immunology, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
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