1
|
Larbi I, Ghedira K, Arbi M, Butcher GD, Rego N, Naya H, Tougorti H, Lachhab J, Behi IE, Nsiri J, Ghram A. Phylogenetic analysis and assessment of the pathogenic potential of the first H9N2 avian influenza viruses isolated from wild birds and Lagoon water in Tunisia. Virus Res 2022; 322:198929. [PMID: 36126884 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) has been isolated from various species of wild birds and domestic poultry worldwide. It has been reported since the late 1990s, that H9N2 AIV has infected humans as reported in some Asian and North African countries. This subtype has already been circulating and constituting a serious threat to the poultry industry in Tunisia back in 2009. To investigate zoonotic potential and pathogenicity of H9N2 AIV in chickens and mice in Tunisia, five strains have been isolated during the period from 2014 to 2018. Samples were withdrawn from several wild bird species and environment (Lagoon water) of Maamoura and Korba Lagoons as well as Kuriat Island. Phylogenetic analyzes demonstrated that the isolated H9N2 strains belonged to the G1-like sublineage and were close to AIV H9N2 poultry viruses from North Africa, West Africa and the Middle East. All strains carried in their hemagglutinin the residue 226 L, which is an important marker for avian-to-human viral transmission. The hemagglutinin cleavage site has several motifs: PSKSSR/G, PARSSR/G and HARSSR/G. The neuraminidase showed S372A and R403W substitutions that have been previously detected in H3N2 and H2N2 viruses that were reported in human pandemics. Many mutations associated with mammalian infections have been detected in internal proteins. Pathogenicity evaluation in chickens showed that GF/14 replicates effectively in the lungs, tracheas, spleens, kidneys and brains and that it was transmitted among contact chickens. However, GHG/18 replicates poorly in chickens and has not an efficient transmission in contact chickens. GF/14 and GHG/18 could not kill mice though they replicated in their respiratory tract and caused a significant body weight loss (p < 0.05). This study highlights the importance of H9N2 AIV monitoring in both migratory birds and the environment to prevent virus transmission to humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Imen Larbi
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia.
| | - Kais Ghedira
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Biomathematics and Biostatistics, LR16IPT09, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Marwa Arbi
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Gary David Butcher
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Natalia Rego
- Bioinformatics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Hugo Naya
- Bioinformatics Unit, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Mataojo, Montevideo, Uruguay; Departmento de Producción Animal y Pasturas, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
| | - Halima Tougorti
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Jihene Lachhab
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Imen El Behi
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Jihene Nsiri
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Abdeljelil Ghram
- Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology, LR19IPT03, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
de Bruin ACM, Funk M, Spronken MI, Gultyaev AP, Fouchier RAM, Richard M. Hemagglutinin Subtype Specificity and Mechanisms of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Genesis. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071566. [PMID: 35891546 PMCID: PMC9321182 DOI: 10.3390/v14071566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses (HPAIVs) arise from low pathogenic precursors following spillover from wild waterfowl into poultry populations. The main virulence determinant of HPAIVs is the presence of a multi-basic cleavage site (MBCS) in the hemagglutinin (HA) glycoprotein. The MBCS allows for HA cleavage and, consequently, activation by ubiquitous proteases, which results in systemic dissemination in terrestrial poultry. Since 1959, 51 independent MBCS acquisition events have been documented, virtually all in HA from the H5 and H7 subtypes. In the present article, data from natural LPAIV to HPAIV conversions and experimental in vitro and in vivo studies were reviewed in order to compile recent advances in understanding HA cleavage efficiency, protease usage, and MBCS acquisition mechanisms. Finally, recent hypotheses that might explain the unique predisposition of the H5 and H7 HA sequences to obtain an MBCS in nature are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anja C. M. de Bruin
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Mathis Funk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Monique I. Spronken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Alexander P. Gultyaev
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
- Group Imaging and Bioinformatics, Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science (LIACS), Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ron A. M. Fouchier
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
| | - Mathilde Richard
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.F.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.); (R.A.M.F.)
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Funk M, de Bruin ACM, Spronken MI, Gultyaev AP, Richard M. In Silico Analyses of the Role of Codon Usage at the Hemagglutinin Cleavage Site in Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Genesis. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071352. [PMID: 35891333 PMCID: PMC9316147 DOI: 10.3390/v14071352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A vast diversity of 16 influenza hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes are found in birds. Interestingly, viruses from only two subtypes, H5 and H7, have so far evolved into highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) following insertions or substitutions at the HA cleavage site by the viral polymerase. The mechanisms underlying this striking subtype specificity are still unknown. Here, we compiled a comprehensive dataset of 20,488 avian influenza virus HA sequences to investigate differences in nucleotide and amino acid usage at the HA cleavage site between subtypes and how these might impact the genesis of HPAIVs by polymerase stuttering and realignment. We found that sequences of the H5 and H7 subtypes stand out by their high purine content at the HA cleavage site. In addition, fewer substitutions were necessary in H5 and H7 HAs than in HAs from other subtypes to acquire an insertion-prone HA cleavage site sequence, as defined based on in vitro and in vivo data from the literature. Codon usage was more favorable for HPAIV genesis in sequences of viruses isolated from species or geographical regions in which HPAIV genesis is more frequently observed in nature. The results of the present analyses suggest that the subtype restriction of HPAIV genesis to H5 and H7 influenza viruses might be due to the particular codon usage at the HA cleavage site in these subtypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mathis Funk
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (M.F.); (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.)
| | - Anja C. M. de Bruin
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (M.F.); (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.)
| | - Monique I. Spronken
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (M.F.); (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.)
| | - Alexander P. Gultyaev
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (M.F.); (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.)
- Group Imaging and Bioinformatics, Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science (LIACS), Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mathilde Richard
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands; (M.F.); (A.C.M.d.B.); (M.I.S.); (A.P.G.)
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Kida Y, Okuya K, Saito T, Yamagishi J, Ohnuma A, Hattori T, Miyamoto H, Manzoor R, Yoshida R, Nao N, Kajihara M, Watanabe T, Takada A. Structural Requirements in the Hemagglutinin Cleavage Site-Coding RNA Region for the Generation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus. Pathogens 2021; 10:1597. [PMID: 34959552 PMCID: PMC8707032 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) with H5 and H7 hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes are derived from their low pathogenic counterparts following the acquisition of multiple basic amino acids in their HA cleavage site. It has been suggested that consecutive adenine residues and a stem-loop structure in the viral RNA region that encodes the cleavage site are essential for the acquisition of the polybasic cleavage site. By using a reporter assay to detect non-templated nucleotide insertions, we found that insertions more frequently occurred in the RNA region (29 nucleotide-length) encoding the cleavage site of an H5 HA gene that was predicted to have a stem-loop structure containing consecutive adenines than in a mutated corresponding RNA region that had a disrupted loop structure with fewer adenines. In virus particles generated by using reverse genetics, nucleotide insertions that created additional codons for basic amino acids were found in the RNA region encoding the cleavage site of an H5 HA gene but not in the mutated RNA region. We confirmed the presence of virus clones with the ability to replicate without trypsin in a plaque assay and to cause lethal infection in chicks. These results demonstrate that the stem-loop structure containing consecutive adenines in HA genes is a key molecular determinant for the emergence of H5 HPAIVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yurie Kida
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Kosuke Okuya
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Takeshi Saito
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Junya Yamagishi
- Division of Collaboration and Education, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan;
| | - Aiko Ohnuma
- Technical Office, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan;
| | - Takanari Hattori
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Hiroko Miyamoto
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Rashid Manzoor
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Reiko Yoshida
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Naganori Nao
- Division of International Research Promotion, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan;
- One Health Research Center, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kajihara
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
| | - Tokiko Watanabe
- Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan;
| | - Ayato Takada
- Division of Global Epidemiology, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan; (Y.K.); (K.O.); (T.S.); (T.H.); (H.M.); (R.M.); (R.Y.); (M.K.)
- International Collaboration Unit, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Dupré G, Hoede C, Figueroa T, Bessière P, Bertagnoli S, Ducatez M, Gaspin C, Volmer R. Phylodynamic Study of the Conserved RNA Structure Encompassing the Hemagglutinin Cleavage Site Encoding Region of H5 and H7 Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses. Virus Evol 2021; 7:veab093. [PMID: 35299790 PMCID: PMC8923263 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veab093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses (HPAIV) evolve from Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza Viruses (LPAIV) of the H5 and H7 subtypes. This evolution is characterized by the acquisition of a multi-basic cleavage site (MBCS) motif in the hemagglutinin (HA) that leads to an extended viral tropism and severe disease in poultry. One key unanswered question is whether the risk of transition to HPAIV is similar for all LPAIV H5 or H7 strains, or whether specific determinants in the HA sequence of some H5 or H7 LPAIV strains correlate with a higher risk of transition to HPAIV. Here we determined if specific features of the conserved RNA stem loop located at the hemagglutinin cleavage site-encoding region could be detected along the LPAIV to HPAIV evolutionary pathway. Analysis of the thermodynamic stability of the predicted RNA structures showed no specific patterns common to HA sequences leading to HPAIV and distinct from those remaining LPAIV. However, RNA structure clustering analysis revealed that most of the American lineage ancestors leading to H7 emergences via recombination shared the same vRNA structure topology at the HA1/HA2 boundary region. Our study thus identified predicted secondary RNA structures present in the HA of H7 viruses, which could promote genetic recombination and acquisition of a MBCS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Dupré
- Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, INRAE, IHAP, UMR 1225, Toulouse, France
| | - Claire Hoede
- INRAE, UR875 Mathématiques et Informatique Appliquées Toulouse, Plateforme GenoToul BioInfo, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Thomas Figueroa
- Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, INRAE, IHAP, UMR 1225, Toulouse, France
| | - Pierre Bessière
- Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, INRAE, IHAP, UMR 1225, Toulouse, France
| | - Stéphane Bertagnoli
- Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, INRAE, IHAP, UMR 1225, Toulouse, France
| | - Mariette Ducatez
- Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, INRAE, IHAP, UMR 1225, Toulouse, France
| | - Christine Gaspin
- INRAE, UR875 Mathématiques et Informatique Appliquées Toulouse, Plateforme GenoToul BioInfo, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Romain Volmer
- Ecole nationale vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, INRAE, IHAP, UMR 1225, Toulouse, France
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
A risk marker of tribasic hemagglutinin cleavage site in influenza A (H9N2) virus. Commun Biol 2021; 4:71. [PMID: 33452423 PMCID: PMC7811019 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-020-01589-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Low pathogenic avian influenza A(H9N2) virus is endemic worldwide and continually recruit internal genes to generate human-infecting H5N1, H5N6, H7N9, and H10N8 influenza variants. Here we show that hemagglutinin cleavage sites (HACS) of H9N2 viruses tended to mutate towards hydrophilic via evolutionary transition, and the tribasic HACS were found at high prevalence in Asia and the Middle East. Our finding suggested that the tribasic H9N2 viruses increased the viral replication, stability, pathogenicity and transmission in chickens and the virulence of mice compared to the monobasic H9N2 viruses. Notably, the enlarged stem-loop structures of HACS in the RNA region were found in the increasing tribasic H9N2 viruses. The enlarged HACS RNA secondary structures of H9N2 viruses did not influence the viral replication but accelerated the frequency of nucleotide insertion in HACS. With the prevailing tendency of the tribasic H9N2 viruses, the tribasic HACS in H9N2 viruses should be paid more attention.
Collapse
|
7
|
Blaurock C, Scheibner D, Landmann M, Vallbracht M, Ulrich R, Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Mettenleiter TC, Abdelwhab EM. Non-basic amino acids in the hemagglutinin proteolytic cleavage site of a European H9N2 avian influenza virus modulate virulence in turkeys. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21226. [PMID: 33277593 PMCID: PMC7718272 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78210-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) is the most widespread low pathogenic (LP) AIV in poultry and poses a serious zoonotic risk. Vaccination is used extensively to mitigate the economic impact of the virus. However, mutations were acquired after long-term circulation of H9N2 virus in poultry, particularly in the hemagglutinin (HA) proteolytic cleavage site (CS), a main virulence determinant of AIV. Compared to chickens, little is known about the genetic determinants for adaptation of H9N2 AIV to turkeys. Here, we describe 36 different CS motifs in Eurasian H9N2 viruses identified from 1966 to 2019. The European H9N2 viruses specify unique HACS with particular polymorphism by insertion of non-basic amino acids at position 319. Recombinant viruses carrying single HACS mutations resembling field viruses were constructed (designated G319, A319, N319, S319, D319 and K319). Several viruses replicated to significantly higher titers in turkey cells than in chicken cells. Serine proteases were more efficient than trypsin to support multicycle replication in mammalian cells. Mutations affected cell-to-cell spread and pH-dependent HA fusion activity. In contrast to chickens, mutations in the HACS modulated clinical signs in inoculated and co-housed turkeys. G319 exhibited the lowest virulence, however, it replicated to significantly higher titers in contact-turkeys and in vitro. Interestingly, H9N2 viruses, particularly G319, replicated in brain cells of turkeys and to a lesser extent in mammalian brain cells independent of trypsin. Therefore, the silent circulation of potentially zoonotic H9N2 viruses in poultry should be monitored carefully. These results are important for understanding the adaptation of H9N2 in poultry and replication in mammalian cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Blaurock
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - David Scheibner
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Maria Landmann
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Melina Vallbracht
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Elsayed M Abdelwhab
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Clements AL, Sealy JE, Peacock TP, Sadeyen JR, Hussain S, Lycett SJ, Shelton H, Digard P, Iqbal M. Contribution of Segment 3 to the Acquisition of Virulence in Contemporary H9N2 Avian Influenza Viruses. J Virol 2020; 94:e01173-20. [PMID: 32727875 PMCID: PMC7527061 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01173-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulate in poultry throughout much of Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. These viruses cause huge economic damage to poultry production systems and pose a zoonotic threat both in their own right and in the generation of novel zoonotic viruses, for example, H7N9. In recent years, it has been observed that H9N2 viruses have further adapted to gallinaceous poultry, becoming more highly transmissible and causing higher morbidity and mortality. Here, we investigate the molecular basis for this increased virulence, comparing a virus from the 1990s and a contemporary field strain. The modern virus replicated to higher titers in various systems, and this difference mapped to a single amino acid polymorphism at position 26 of the endonuclease domain shared by the PA and PA-X proteins. This change was responsible for increased replication and higher morbidity and mortality rates along with extended tissue tropism seen in chickens. Although the PA K26E change correlated with increased host cell shutoff activity of the PA-X protein in vitro, it could not be overridden by frameshift site mutations that block PA-X expression and therefore increased PA-X activity could not explain the differences in replication phenotype. Instead, this indicates that these differences are due to subtle effects on PA function. This work gives insight into the ongoing evolution and poultry adaptation of H9N2 and other avian influenza viruses and helps us understand the striking morbidity and mortality rates in the field, as well as the rapidly expanding geographical range seen in these viruses.IMPORTANCE Avian influenza viruses, such as H9N2, cause huge economic damage to poultry production worldwide and are additionally considered potential pandemic threats. Understanding how these viruses evolve in their natural hosts is key to effective control strategies. In the Middle East and South Asia, an older H9N2 virus strain has been replaced by a new reassortant strain with greater fitness. Here, we take representative viruses and investigate the genetic basis for this "fitness." A single mutation in the virus was responsible for greater fitness, enabling high growth of the contemporary H9N2 virus in cells, as well as in chickens. The genetic mutation that modulates this change is within the viral PA protein, a part of the virus polymerase gene that contributes to viral replication as well as to virus accessory functions-however, we find that the fitness effect is specifically due to changes in the protein polymerase activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anabel L Clements
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, United Kingdom
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua E Sealy
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas P Peacock
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, United Kingdom
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Saira Hussain
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Samantha J Lycett
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Holly Shelton
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Digard
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Munir Iqbal
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Barberis A, Boudaoud A, Gorrill A, Loupias J, Ghram A, Lachheb J, Alloui N, Ducatez MF. Full-length genome sequences of the first H9N2 avian influenza viruses isolated in the Northeast of Algeria. Virol J 2020; 17:108. [PMID: 32680533 PMCID: PMC7366561 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-020-01377-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background H9N2 avian influenza viruses (AIV) has a worldwide geographic distribution and affects poultry of different types of production. H9N2 AIV was first reported in the Northeast of Algeria in April 2017, following an outbreak associated with high mortality, in broiler flocks. In the present study, we report full-length genome sequences of AIV H9N2, and the detailed phylogeny and molecular genetic analyses. Methods Ten AIV H9N2 strains, collected in broiler flocks, were amplified in 9-day-old embryonated specific pathogen free (SPF) chicken eggs. Their full-length genomes were successfully sequenced and phylogenetic and molecular characterizations were conducted. Results Phylogenetic analysis showed that the isolates were monophyletic, grouped within the G-1 lineage and were very close to Moroccan and Algerian strains identified in 2016 and 2017, respectively. The low pathogenicity of the strains was confirmed by the sequence motif (335RSSR/GLF341) at the hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site. An exclusive substitution (T197A) that had not been previously reported for H9N2 viruses; but, conserved in some pandemic H1N1 viruses, was observed. When compared to the G1-like H9N2 prototype, the studied strains showed one less glycosylation site in HA, but 2–3 additional ones in the stalk of the neuraminidase (NA). The HA protein harbored the substitution 234 L, suggesting binding preference to human-like receptors. The NA protein harbored S372A and R403W substitutions, previously detected in H9N2 from Asia and the Middle East, and especially in H2N2 and H3N2 strains that caused human pandemics. Different molecular markers associated with virulence and mammalian infections have been detected in the viral internal proteins. The matrix M2 protein possessed the S31N substitution associated with drug resistance. The non-structural 1 (NS1) protein showed the “GSEV” PDZ ligand (PL) C-terminal motif and no 80–84 deletion. Conclusion Characterized Algerian AIV isolates showed mutations that suggest increased zoonotic potential. Additional studies in animal models are required to investigate the pathogenicity of these H9N2 AIV strains. Monitoring their evolution in both migratory and domestic birds is crucial to prevent transmission to humans. Implementation of adequate biosecurity measures that limit the introduction and the propagation of AIV H9N2 in Algerian poultry farm is crucial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdelheq Barberis
- Centre de Recherche en Biotechnologie, Nouvelle Ville Ali Mendjeli, El Khroub, Algeria. .,LESPA, Département vétérinaire, ISVSA, Université de Batna, Batna, Algeria.
| | - Amine Boudaoud
- LESPA, Département vétérinaire, ISVSA, Université de Batna, Batna, Algeria
| | - Angelina Gorrill
- IHAP, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076, Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Josianne Loupias
- IHAP, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076, Toulouse cedex, France
| | - Abdeljelil Ghram
- Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie et de Microbiologie Vétérinaire, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Université Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Jihene Lachheb
- Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie et de Microbiologie Vétérinaire, Institut Pasteur de Tunis, Université Tunis El Manar, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Nadir Alloui
- LESPA, Département vétérinaire, ISVSA, Université de Batna, Batna, Algeria
| | - Mariette F Ducatez
- IHAP, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, 23 Chemin des Capelles, 31076, Toulouse cedex, France.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Low replicative fitness of neuraminidase inhibitor-resistant H7N9 avian influenza a virus with R292K substitution in neuraminidase in cynomolgus macaques compared with I222T substitution. Antiviral Res 2020; 178:104790. [PMID: 32272175 DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Human cases of H7N9 influenza A virus infection have been increasing since 2013. The first choice of treatment for influenza is neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors (NAIs), but there is a concern that NAI-resistant viruses are selected in the presence of NAIs. In our previous study, an H7N9 virus carrying AA substitution of threonine (T) for isoleucine (I) at residue 222 in NA (NA222T, N2 numbering) and an H7N9 virus carrying AA substitution of lysine (K) for arginine (R) at residue 292 in NA (NA292K, N2 numbering) were found in different macaques that had been infected with A/Anhui/1/2013 (H7N9) and treated with NAIs. In the present study, the variant with NA292K showed not only resistance to NAIs but also lower replication activity in MDCK cells than did the virus with wild-type NA, whereas the variant with NA222T, which was less resistant to NAIs, showed replication activity similar to that of the wild-type virus. Next, we examined the pathogenicity of these H7N9 NAI-resistant viruses in macaques. The variants caused clinical signs similar to those caused by the wild-type virus with similar replication potency. However, the virus with NA292K was replaced within 7 days by that with NA292R (same as the wild-type) in nasal samples from macaques infected with the virus with NA292K, i.e. the so-called revertant (wild-type virus) became dominant in the population in the absence of an NAI. These results suggest that the clinical signs observed in macaques infected with the NA292K virus are caused by the NA292K virus and the NA292R virus and that the virus with NA292K may not replicate continuously in the upper respiratory tract of patients without treatment as effectively as the wild-type virus.
Collapse
|
11
|
Parvin R, Schinkoethe J, Grund C, Ulrich R, Bönte F, Behr KP, Voss M, Samad MA, Hassan KE, Luttermann C, Beer M, Harder T. Comparison of pathogenicity of subtype H9 avian influenza wild-type viruses from a wide geographic origin expressing mono-, di-, or tri-basic hemagglutinin cleavage sites. Vet Res 2020; 51:48. [PMID: 32234073 PMCID: PMC7106749 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00771-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
An intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI) of > 1.2 in chickens or, in case of subtypes H5 and H7, expression of a polybasic hemagglutinin cleavage site (HACS), signals high pathogenicity (HP). Viruses of the H9N2-G1 lineage, which spread across Asia and Africa, are classified to be of low pathogenicity although, in the field, they became associated with severe clinical signs and epizootics in chickens. Here we report on a pre-eminent trait of recent H9N2-G1 isolates from Bangladesh and India, which express a tribasic HACS (motif PAKSKR-GLF; reminiscent of an HPAIV-like polybasic HACS) and compare their features to H9Nx viruses with di- and monobasic HACS from other phylogenetic and geographic origins. In an in vitro assay, the tribasic HACS of H9N2 was processed by furin-like proteases similar to bona fide H5 HPAIV while some dibasic sites showed increased cleavability but monobasic HACS none. Yet, all viruses remained trypsin-dependent in cell culture. In ovo, only tribasic H9N2 viruses were found to replicate in a grossly extended spectrum of embryonic organs. In contrast to all subtype H5/H7 HPAI viruses, tribasic H9N2 viruses did not replicate in endothelial cells either in the chorio-allantoic membrane or in other embryonic tissues. By IVPI, all H9Nx isolates proved to be of low pathogenicity. Pathogenicity assessment of tribasic H9N2-G1 viruses remains problematic. It cannot be excluded that the formation of a third basic amino acid in the HACS forms an intermediate step towards a gain in pathogenicity. Continued observation of the evolution of these viruses in the field is recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rokshana Parvin
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
| | - Jan Schinkoethe
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christian Grund
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Bönte
- University of Applied Sciences Wedel, Feldstraße 143, 22880, Wedel, Germany
| | - Klaus P Behr
- AniCon Labor GmbH, Mühlenstraße, 49685, Höltinghausen, Germany
| | - Matthias Voss
- Lohmann Tierzucht GmbH, Veterinär-Labor, Abschnede 64, 27472, Cuxhaven, Germany
| | - Mohammed A Samad
- NRL-AI, Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute (BLRI), Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Kareem E Hassan
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.,Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni Suef, Egypt
| | - Christine Luttermann
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Greifswald-Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Timm Harder
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Insertion of Basic Amino Acids in the Hemagglutinin Cleavage Site of H4N2 Avian Influenza Virus (AIV)-Reduced Virus Fitness in Chickens is Restored by Reassortment with Highly Pathogenic H5N1 AIV. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21072353. [PMID: 32231159 PMCID: PMC7178042 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21072353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic (HP) avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are naturally restricted to H5 and H7 subtypes with a polybasic cleavage site (CS) in hemagglutinin (HA) and any AIV with an intravenous pathogenicity index (IVPI) ≥ 1.2. Although only a few non-H5/H7 viruses fulfill the criteria of HPAIV; it remains unclear why these viruses did not spread in domestic birds. In 2012, a unique H4N2 virus with a polybasic CS 322PEKRRTR/G329 was isolated from quails in California which, however, was avirulent in chickens. This is the only known non-H5/H7 virus with four basic amino acids in the HACS. Here, we investigated the virulence of this virus in chickens after expansion of the polybasic CS by substitution of T327R (322PEKRRRR/G329) or T327K (322PEKRRKR/G329) with or without reassortment with HPAIV H5N1 and H7N7. The impact of single mutations or reassortment on virus fitness in vitro and in vivo was studied. Efficient cell culture replication of T327R/K carrying H4N2 viruses increased by treatment with trypsin, particularly in MDCK cells, and reassortment with HPAIV H5N1. Replication, virus excretion and bird-to-bird transmission of H4N2 was remarkably compromised by the CS mutations, but restored after reassortment with HPAIV H5N1, although not with HPAIV H7N7. Viruses carrying the H4-HA with or without R327 or K327 mutations and the other seven gene segments from HPAIV H5N1 exhibited high virulence and efficient transmission in chickens. Together, increasing the number of basic amino acids in the H4N2 HACS was detrimental for viral fitness particularly in vivo but compensated by reassortment with HPAIV H5N1. This may explain the absence of non-H5/H7 HPAIV in poultry.
Collapse
|
13
|
Kikutani Y, Okamatsu M, Nishihara S, Takase-Yoden S, Hiono T, de Vries RP, McBride R, Matsuno K, Kida H, Sakoda Y. E190V substitution of H6 hemagglutinin is one of key factors for binding to sulfated sialylated glycan receptor and infection to chickens. Microbiol Immunol 2020; 64:304-312. [PMID: 31943329 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 12/23/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) recognize sialic acid linked α2,3 to galactose (SAα2,3Gal) glycans as receptors. In this study, the interactions between hemagglutinins (HAs) of AIVs and sulfated SAα2,3Gal glycans were analyzed to clarify the molecular basis of interspecies transmission of AIVs from ducks to chickens. It was revealed that E190V and N192D substitutions of the HA increased the recovery of viruses derived from an H6 duck virus isolate, A/duck/Hong Kong/960/1980 (H6N2), in chickens. Recombinant HAs from an H6 chicken virus, A/chicken/Tainan/V156/1999 (H6N1), bound to sulfated SAα2,3Gal glycans, whereas the HAs from an H6 duck virus did not. Binding preference of mutant HAs revealed that an E190V substitution is critical for the recognition of sulfated SAα2,3Gal glycans. These results suggest that the binding of the HA from H6 AIVs to sulfated SAα2,3Gal glycans explains a part of mechanisms of interspecies transmission of AIVs from ducks to chickens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuto Kikutani
- Department of Disease Control, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Okamatsu
- Department of Disease Control, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Shoko Nishihara
- Department of Bioinformatics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Takahiro Hiono
- Department of Disease Control, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.,Glycoscience & Glycotechnology Research Group, Biotechnology Research Institute for Drug Discovery, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Robert P de Vries
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ryan McBride
- Departments of Molecular Medicine and Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Keita Matsuno
- Department of Disease Control, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.,Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institute for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kida
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institute for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.,Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Sakoda
- Department of Disease Control, Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.,Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institute for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhang Y, Xu C, Zhang H, Liu GD, Xue C, Cao Y. Targeting Hemagglutinin: Approaches for Broad Protection against the Influenza A Virus. Viruses 2019; 11:v11050405. [PMID: 31052339 PMCID: PMC6563292 DOI: 10.3390/v11050405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses are dynamically epidemic and genetically diverse. Due to the antigenic drift and shift of the virus, seasonal vaccines are required to be reformulated annually to match with current circulating strains. However, the mismatch between vaccinal strains and circulating strains occurs frequently, resulting in the low efficacy of seasonal vaccines. Therefore, several “universal” vaccine candidates based on the structure and function of the hemagglutinin (HA) protein have been developed to meet the requirement of a broad protection against homo-/heterosubtypic challenges. Here, we review recent novel constructs and discuss several important findings regarding the broad protective efficacy of HA-based universal vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Cong Xu
- Research Center of Agricultural of Dongguan City, Dongguan 523086, China.
| | - Hao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - George Dacai Liu
- Firstline Biopharmaceuticals Corporation, 12,050 167th PL NE, Redmond, WA 98052, USA.
| | - Chunyi Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Yongchang Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Amanat F, Meade P, Strohmeier S, Krammer F. Cross-reactive antibodies binding to H4 hemagglutinin protect against a lethal H4N6 influenza virus challenge in the mouse model. Emerg Microbes Infect 2019; 8:155-168. [PMID: 30866770 PMCID: PMC6455122 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2018.1564369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 12/01/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Influenza viruses of the H4 subtype are widespread in wild birds, circulate in domestic poultry, readily infect mammals, and tolerate the insertion of a polybasic cleavage site. In addition, serological evidence suggests that humans working with poultry are exposed to these viruses. While H4 viruses are not of immediate pandemic concern, there is a lack of knowledge regarding their antigenicity. In order to study viruses of the H4 subtype, we generated and characterized a panel of antibodies that bind a wide variety of H4 hemagglutinins from avian and swine isolates of both the Eurasian and North American lineage. We further characterized these antibodies using novel recombinant H4N6 viruses that were found to be lethal in DBA/2J mice. Non-neutralizing antibodies, which had activity in an antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity reporter assay in vitro, protected mice against challenge in vivo, highlighting the importance of effector functions. Our data suggest a high degree of antigenic conservation of the H4 hemagglutinin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Amanat
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Philip Meade
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shirin Strohmeier
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Florian Krammer
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Shibata A, Okamatsu M, Sumiyoshi R, Matsuno K, Wang ZJ, Kida H, Osaka H, Sakoda Y. Repeated detection of H7N9 avian influenza viruses in raw poultry meat illegally brought to Japan by international flight passengers. Virology 2018; 524:10-17. [PMID: 30138834 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
H7N9 highly and low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV and LPAIV, respectively) have been isolated from duck meat products that were brought illegally into Japan by flight passengers in their hand luggage. These H7N9 virus isolates were phylogenetically closely related to those prevailing in China. Antigenic analysis revealed that the hemagglutinin of the H7N9 HPAIV isolate was slightly different from those of the H7N9 LPAIV and older H7 strains. These meat products contaminated with AIVs repeatedly brought into Japan lead to increased risks of poultry and public health. Continuous border disease control based on the detection and culling of infected poultry and meat products is, thus, essential for the prevention of introduction and spread of AIVs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akihiro Shibata
- Exotic Disease Inspection Division, Laboratory Department, Animal Quarantine Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tokoname, Aichi 479-0881, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Okamatsu
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Riho Sumiyoshi
- Exotic Disease Inspection Division, Laboratory Department, Animal Quarantine Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tokoname, Aichi 479-0881, Japan
| | - Keita Matsuno
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan; Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Zu-Jyun Wang
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan; Training Program for Asian Veterinarians, Japan Veterinary Medical Association, Tokyo 107-0062, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Kida
- Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan; Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Osaka
- Exotic Disease Inspection Division, Laboratory Department, Animal Quarantine Service, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Tokoname, Aichi 479-0881, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Sakoda
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Disease Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan; Global Station for Zoonosis Control, Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Zhang C, Zhou J, Cai K, Zhang W, Liao C, Wang C. Gene cloning, expression and immune adjuvant properties of the recombinant fusion peptide Tα1-BLP on avian influenza inactivate virus vaccine. Microb Pathog 2018; 120:147-154. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
18
|
Jegede A, Fu Q, Berhane Y, Lin M, Kumar A, Guan J. H9N2 avian influenza virus retained low pathogenicity after serial passage in chickens. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH = REVUE CANADIENNE DE RECHERCHE VETERINAIRE 2018; 82:131-138. [PMID: 29755193 PMCID: PMC5914077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The H9N2 strains of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulate worldwide in poultry and cause sporadic infection in humans. To better understand the evolution of these viruses while circulating in poultry, an H9N2 chicken isolate was passaged 19 times in chickens via aerosol inoculation. Whole-genome sequencing showed that the viruses from the initial stock and those after the 8th and 19th passages (P0, P8, and P19) all had the same monobasic cleavage site in the hemagglutinin (HA), typical for viruses of low pathogenicity. However, at position 226 of the HA protein the ratio of glutamine (which favors avian-type receptor binding) to leucine (which favors mammalian-type receptor binding) decreased from 54:46 in P0, to 87:13 in P8, and then 0:100 in P19. In chickens exposed to aerosols of P0, P8, or P19, replication of the viruses was similar and mainly limited to the respiratory tract. None of the infected chickens showed any clinical signs. Over the 19 passages the viruses maintained relatively stable infectivity but gradually lost lethality to chicken embryos. According to the hemagglutination inactivation assay, P8 was slightly and P19 significantly (P < 0.05) less thermostable than P0. Collectively, after 19 passages in chickens the H9N2 AIVs retained low pathogenicity with a positive selection of L226 in the HA. These findings suggest that H9N2 viruses might acquire mammalian specificity after asymptomatic circulation in avian species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Akinlolu Jegede
- Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Jegede, Fu, Lin, Guan); National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (Winnipeg Laboratory - Arlington), 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Berhane); Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Lin, Kumar)
| | - Qigao Fu
- Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Jegede, Fu, Lin, Guan); National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (Winnipeg Laboratory - Arlington), 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Berhane); Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Lin, Kumar)
| | - Yohannes Berhane
- Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Jegede, Fu, Lin, Guan); National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (Winnipeg Laboratory - Arlington), 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Berhane); Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Lin, Kumar)
| | - Min Lin
- Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Jegede, Fu, Lin, Guan); National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (Winnipeg Laboratory - Arlington), 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Berhane); Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Lin, Kumar)
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Jegede, Fu, Lin, Guan); National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (Winnipeg Laboratory - Arlington), 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Berhane); Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Lin, Kumar)
| | - Jiewen Guan
- Ottawa Laboratory (Fallowfield), Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Jegede, Fu, Lin, Guan); National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease (Winnipeg Laboratory - Arlington), 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba (Berhane); Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario (Lin, Kumar)
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Lee DW, Whittaker GR. Use of AAScatterPlot tool for monitoring the evolution of the hemagglutinin cleavage site in H9 avian influenza viruses. Bioinformatics 2018; 33:2431-2435. [PMID: 28383669 DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btx203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Motivation Viruses rapidly evolve due to their error-prone genome replication, and identifying which mutations are selected for during evolution is critical for virus surveillance efforts. Here we introduce a scatter plot tool (AAScatterPlot) that easily shows the selection and avoidance of certain protein mutations based on biochemical properties. We demonstrate its utility for monitoring the evolution of H9 avian influenza viruses from China between 2005 and 2015, particularly at the hemagglutinin (HA) proteolytic cleavage site (PCS) that can affect virus activation and pathogenicity. Results Given genome sequences, the AAScatterPlot tool compacts into a single plot, information about the hydropathy index, Van der Waals volume, chemical property and occurrence frequency of amino acid residues. The tool also shows the range of residues that could arise from a single point mutation in the genome, which can then be compared against the observed residues to identify mutation constraints. Through this approach, we found that the 2nd position towards the N-terminus side of the HA PCS (P2 position) avoided hydrophobic residues, whereas the P3 position avoided hydrophilic residues. Availability and Implementation AAScatterPlot is available at https://github.com/WhittakerLab/AAScatterPlot. Contact gary.whittaker@cornell.edu. Supplementary information Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gary R Whittaker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Richard M, Fouchier R, Monne I, Kuiken T. Mechanisms and risk factors for mutation from low to highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.2903/sp.efsa.2017.en-1287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
|
21
|
Tombari W, ElBehi I, Amouna F, Ghram A. Variability of tropism and replicative capacity of two naturally occurring influenza A H9N2 viruses in cell cultures from different tissues. Avian Pathol 2017; 45:212-20. [PMID: 26813086 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2016.1143086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Studies carried out on cell permissivity are of great interest to understand virus replication and pathogenicity. We described the results of a comparative analysis of replication efficiency of two naturally occurring influenza A H9N2 variants isolated from poultry and wild birds, differing by only two substitutions Q226L and T384N, in the receptor-binding site of haemagglutinin and the 380 loop region of NA proteins, respectively. Considering the overall growth of both viruses, lung cultures ensured the most efficient growth of TUN12L226N384 strain with titres up to 10(9) TCID50/ml whereas small intestine culture was highly susceptible to the TUN51Q226T384 virus reaching a titre of 10(6) TCID50/ml. The lowest replication was shown in liver cells. The addition of trypsin was essential for the replication of either virus in primary fibroblasts, but it had a marginal positive effect on virus replication in the four other culture types with maximum titres of 10(8) TCID50/ml. This means that in chicken, the proteolytic activation of the H9N2 viruses with the cleavage motif RSSR may be mediated by other endoproteases than trypsin. Further investigations should concentrate on the production of the appropriate set of viruses by a reverse genetics approach and the examination of cellular protease expression in chicken tissues. This would lead to a more complete understanding of the tropism of low-pathogenic Influenza A viruses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wafa Tombari
- a Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology , Institute Pasteur of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar , Tunis- Belvédère , Tunisia
| | - Imen ElBehi
- a Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology , Institute Pasteur of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar , Tunis- Belvédère , Tunisia
| | - Faten Amouna
- a Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology , Institute Pasteur of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar , Tunis- Belvédère , Tunisia
| | - Abdeljelil Ghram
- a Laboratory of Epidemiology and Veterinary Microbiology , Institute Pasteur of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar , Tunis- Belvédère , Tunisia
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Genetic Predisposition To Acquire a Polybasic Cleavage Site for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin. mBio 2017; 8:mBio.02298-16. [PMID: 28196963 PMCID: PMC5312086 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02298-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses with H5 and H7 hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes evolve from low-pathogenic precursors through the acquisition of multiple basic amino acid residues at the HA cleavage site. Although this mechanism has been observed to occur naturally only in these HA subtypes, little is known about the genetic basis for the acquisition of the polybasic HA cleavage site. Here we show that consecutive adenine residues and a stem-loop structure, which are frequently found in the viral RNA region encoding amino acids around the cleavage site of low-pathogenic H5 and H7 viruses isolated from waterfowl reservoirs, are important for nucleotide insertions into this RNA region. A reporter assay to detect nontemplated nucleotide insertions and deep-sequencing analysis of viral RNAs revealed that an increased number of adenine residues and enlarged stem-loop structure in the RNA region accelerated the multiple adenine and/or guanine insertions required to create codons for basic amino acids. Interestingly, nucleotide insertions associated with the HA cleavage site motif were not observed principally in the viral RNA of other subtypes tested (H1, H2, H3, and H4). Our findings suggest that the RNA editing-like activity is the key mechanism for nucleotide insertions, providing a clue as to why the acquisition of the polybasic HA cleavage site is restricted to the particular HA subtypes. Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on the antigenicity of the viral surface glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase. Of the 16 HA subtypes (H1 to -16) maintained in waterfowl reservoirs of influenza A viruses, H5 and H7 viruses often become highly pathogenic through the acquisition of multiple basic amino acid residues at the HA cleavage site. Although this mechanism has been known since the 1980s, the genetic basis for nucleotide insertions has remained unclear. This study shows the potential role of the viral RNA secondary structure for nucleotide insertions and demonstrates a key mechanism explaining why the acquisition of the polybasic HA cleavage site is restricted to particular HA subtypes in nature. Our findings will contribute to better understanding of the ecology of influenza A viruses and will also be useful for the development of genetically modified vaccines against H5 and H7 influenza A viruses with increased stability.
Collapse
|
23
|
Luczo JM, Stambas J, Durr PA, Michalski WP, Bingham J. Molecular pathogenesis of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza: the role of the haemagglutinin cleavage site motif. Rev Med Virol 2015; 25:406-30. [PMID: 26467906 PMCID: PMC5057330 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.1846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza has caused a heavy socio‐economic burden through culling of poultry to minimise human and livestock infection. Although human infections with H5N1 have to date been limited, concerns for the pandemic potential of this zoonotic virus have been greatly intensified following experimental evidence of aerosol transmission of H5N1 viruses in a mammalian infection model. In this review, we discuss the dominance of the haemagglutinin cleavage site motif as a pathogenicity determinant, the host‐pathogen molecular interactions driving cleavage activation, reverse genetics manipulations and identification of residues key to haemagglutinin cleavage site functionality and the mechanisms of cell and tissue damage during H5N1 infection. We specifically focus on the disease in chickens, as it is in this species that high pathogenicity frequently evolves and from which transmission to the human population occurs. With >75% of emerging infectious diseases being of zoonotic origin, it is necessary to understand pathogenesis in the primary host to explain spillover events into the human population. © 2015 The Authors. Reviews in Medical Virology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmina M Luczo
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, Victoria, Australia.,School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Stambas
- School of Medicine, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Peter A Durr
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Wojtek P Michalski
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Bingham
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hiono T, Okamatsu M, Nishihara S, Takase-Yoden S, Sakoda Y, Kida H. A chicken influenza virus recognizes fucosylated α2,3 sialoglycan receptors on the epithelial cells lining upper respiratory tracts of chickens. Virology 2014; 456-457:131-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2013] [Revised: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
25
|
TMPRSS2 is a host factor that is essential for pneumotropism and pathogenicity of H7N9 influenza A virus in mice. J Virol 2014; 88:4744-51. [PMID: 24522916 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03799-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cleavage of the hemagglutinin (HA) by host proteases is essential for the infectivity of influenza viruses. Here, we analyzed the role of the serine protease TMPRSS2, which activates HA in the human respiratory tract, in pathogenesis in a mouse model. Replication of the human H7N9 isolate A/Anhui/1/13 and of human H1N1 and H3N2 viruses was compared in TMPRSS2 knockout (TMPRSS2(-/-)) and wild-type (WT) mice. Knockout of TMPRSS2 expression inhibited H7N9 influenza virus replication in explants of murine tracheas, bronchi, and lungs. H1N1 virus replication was also strongly suppressed in airway explants of TMPRSS2(-/-) mice, while H3N2 virus replication was only marginally affected. H7N9 and H1N1 viruses were apathogenic in TMPRSS2(-/-) mice, whereas WT mice developed severe disease with mortality rates of 100% and 20%, respectively. In contrast, all H3N2 infected TMPRSS2(-/-) and WT mice succumbed to lethal infection. Cleavage analysis showed that H7 and H1 are efficiently activated by TMPRSS2, whereas H3 is less susceptible to the protease. Our data demonstrate that TMPRSS2 is a host factor that is essential for pneumotropism and pathogenicity of H7N9 and H1N1 influenza virus in mice. In contrast, replication of H3N2 virus appears to depend on another, not yet identified protease, supporting the concept that human influenza viruses differ in protease specificity. IMPORTANCE Cleavage of the hemagglutinin (HA) by host proteases is essential for the infectivity of influenza virus, but little is known about its relevance for pathogenesis in mammals. Here, we show that knockout mice that do not express the HA-activating protease TMPRSS2 are resistant to pulmonary disease with lethal outcome when infected with influenza A viruses of subtypes H7N9 and H1N1, whereas they are not protected from lethal H3N2 virus infection. These findings demonstrate that human influenza viruses differ in protease specificity, and that expression of the appropriate protease in respiratory tissues is essential for pneumotropism and pathogenicity. Our observations also demonstrate that HA-activating proteases and in particular TMPRSS2 are promising targets for influenza therapy.
Collapse
|
26
|
Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Garten W, Matrosovich M, Klenk HD. The hemagglutinin: a determinant of pathogenicity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2014; 385:3-34. [PMID: 25031010 DOI: 10.1007/82_2014_384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The hemagglutinin (HA) is a prime determinant of the pathogenicity of influenza A viruses. It initiates infection by binding to cell surface receptors and by inducing membrane fusion. The fusion capacity of HA depends on cleavage activation by host proteases, and it has long been known that highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses displaying a multibasic cleavage site differ in protease sensitivity from low pathogenic avian and mammalian influenza viruses with a monobasic cleavage site. Evidence is increasing that there are also variations in proteolytic activation among the viruses with a monobasic cleavage site, and several proteases have been identified recently that activate these viruses in a natural setting. Differences in protease sensitivity of HA and in tissue specificity of the enzymes are important determinants for virus tropism in the respiratory tract and for systemic spread of infection. Protease inhibitors that interfere with cleavage activation have the potential to be used for antiviral therapy and attenuated viruses have been generated by mutation of the cleavage site that can be used for the development of inactivated and live vaccines. It has long been known that human and avian influenza viruses differ in their specificity for sialic acid-containing cell receptors, and it is now clear that human tissues contain also receptors for avian viruses. Differences in receptor-binding specificity of seasonal and zoonotic viruses and differential expression of receptors for these viruses in the human respiratory tract account, at least partially, for the severity of disease. Receptor binding and fusion activation are modulated by HA glycosylation, and interaction of the glycans of HA with cellular lectins also affects virus infectivity. Interestingly, some of the mechanisms underlying pathogenicity are determinants of host range and transmissibility, as well.
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
Avian influenza virus H9N2 is prevalent in waterfowl and has become endemic in poultry in Asia and the Middle East. H9N2 influenza viruses have served as a reservoir of internal genes for other avian influenza viruses that infect humans, and several cases of human infection by H9N2 influenza viruses have indicated its pandemic potential. Fortunately, an extensive surveillance program enables close monitoring of H9N2 influenza viruses worldwide and has generated a large repository of virus sequences and phylogenetic information. Despite the large quantity of sequences in different databases, very little is known about specific virus isolates and their pathogenesis. Here, we characterize a low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus, A/chicken/Israel/810/2001 (H9N2) (Israel810), which is representative of influenza virus strains that have caused severe morbidity and mortality in poultry farms. We show that under certain circumstances the Israel810 hemagglutinin (HA) can be activated by furin, a hallmark of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. We demonstrate that Israel810 HA can be cleaved in cells with high levels of furin expression and that a mutation that eliminates a glycosylation site in HA(1) allows the Israel810 HA to gain universal cleavage in cell culture. Pseudoparticles generated from Israel810 HA, or the glycosylation mutant, transduce cells efficiently. In contrast, introduction of a polybasic cleavage site into Israel810 HA leads to pseudoviruses that are compromised for transduction. Our data indicate a mechanism for an H9N2 evolutionary pathway that may allow it to gain virulence in a distinct manner from H5 and H7 influenza viruses.
Collapse
|
28
|
Jiang H, Yu K, Kapczynski DR. Transcription factor regulation and cytokine expression following in vitro infection of primary chicken cell culture with low pathogenic avian influenza virus. Virol J 2013; 10:342. [PMID: 24252391 PMCID: PMC4225510 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-10-342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Avian influenza virus (AIV) induced proinflammatory cytokine expression is believed to contribute to the disease pathogenesis following infection of poultry. However, there is limited information on the avian immune response to infection with low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV). METHODS To gain a better understanding of the early viral-host interactions of LPAIV in chickens, primary chicken embryo hepatocytes (CEH) were infected with four different LPAIVs of U.S. origin. Kinetics of virus replication, transcription factor (c-Jun, p50 and IRF-3) activation and immune response gene (IL-6, IL-1beta, IFN-alpha and Mx) expression were studied at four different time points (6, 12, 24 and 48 hours) post infection and compared to non-infected controls. RESULTS CEH can support growth of the tested LPAIVs when with trypsin supplementation. All four immune response genes tested were upregulated following infection as were transcription factors c-Jun, p50 and IRF-3. Amplification of these genes was dependant on virus replication (e.g. inclusion of trypsin), such that immune response genes and transcription factors were upregulated as viral titers increased. CONCLUSION The results of these studies demonstrate the requirement of virus replication for innate immune regulation and broaden our understanding of transcription factor responses related to LPAIV infection in chickens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haijun Jiang
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, Greece
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People‘s Republic of China
| | - Kangzhen Yu
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine and State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People‘s Republic of China
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Disease Research Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, 934 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30605, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Klenk HD, Garten W. Activation of influenza viruses by proteases from host cells and bacteria in the human airway epithelium. Pathog Dis 2013; 69:87-100. [PMID: 23821437 PMCID: PMC7108517 DOI: 10.1111/2049-632x.12053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza is an acute infection of the respiratory tract, which affects each year millions of people. Influenza virus infection is initiated by the surface glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) through receptor binding and fusion of viral and endosomal membranes. HA is synthesized as a precursor protein and requires cleavage by host cell proteases to gain its fusion capacity. Although cleavage of HA is crucial for virus infectivity, little was known about relevant proteases in the human airways for a long time. Recent progress in the identification and characterization of HA‐activating host cell proteases has been considerable however and supports the idea of targeting HA cleavage as a novel approach for influenza treatment. Interestingly, certain bacteria have been demonstrated to support HA activation either by secreting proteases that cleave HA or due to activation of cellular proteases and thereby may contribute to virus spread and enhanced pathogenicity. In this review, we give an overview on activation of influenza viruses by proteases from host cells and bacteria with the main focus on recent progress on HA cleavage by proteases HAT and TMPRSS2 in the human airway epithelium. In addition, we outline investigations of HA‐activating proteases as potential drug targets for influenza treatment. The authors, who are leading experts in this field, present a timely, authoritative review on the proteolytic cleavage of the influenza hemagglutinin (HA), an activation mechanism that is essential for the infectivity of influenza viruses, including the recently emerged H7N9. They also address the potential of host proteases as targets for developing new influenza drugs. This review will be of considerable interest to virologists, microbiologists and pharmaceutical companies alike.
Collapse
|
30
|
Maruyama J, Okamatsu M, Soda K, Sakoda Y, Kida H. Factors responsible for pathogenicity in chickens of a low-pathogenic H7N7 avian influenza virus isolated from a feral duck. Arch Virol 2013; 158:2473-8. [PMID: 23779115 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-013-1762-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses have poly-basic amino acid sequences at the cleavage site in their hemagglutinin (HA). Although this poly-basic region is a prerequisite factor for pathogenicity in chickens, not much is known about additional factors responsible for the acquisition of pathogenicity of the duck influenza virus in chickens. Here, we introduced multiple basic amino acid residues into the HA cleavage site of the A/duck/Hokkaido/Vac-2/2004 (H7N7) strain of avian influenza virus, which has low pathogenicity in chickens; the resultant Vac2sub-P0 strain was not intravenously pathogenic in chickens. In contrast, the Vac2sub-P3 strain, which was recovered from three consecutive passages of Vac2sub-P0 in chicks, was intravenously pathogenic in chickens. Six amino acid substitutions were identified by comparison of the Vac2sub-P3 and Vac2sub-P0 genomic sequences: Lys123Glu in PB2, Asn16Asp in PB1, Glu227Gly and Ile388Thr in HA, Gly228Arg in M1, and Leu46Pro in M2. The results of intravenous inoculations of chickens with recombinant virus indicated that all six amino acid substitutions were required to varying degrees for Vac2sub-P3 pathogenicity, with Glu227Gly and Ile388Thr in HA being particularly essential. These results reveal the roles of additional viral factors in the acquisition of pathogenicity in addition to the previously characterized role of the poly-basic amino acid sequences at the HA cleavage site.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junki Maruyama
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0818, Japan
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Stech J, Mettenleiter TC. Virulence determinants of high-pathogenic avian influenza viruses in gallinaceous poultry. Future Virol 2013. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.13.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
High-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) cause devastating outbreaks in domestic poultry worldwide. Moreover, they repeatedly lead to severe, even fatal disease in humans, raising concerns about their pandemic potential. HPAIV have evolved from circulating low-pathogenic precursors in several independent events by spontaneous acquisition of a polybasic cleavage site in the hemagglutinin (HA) envelope protein. Remarkably, in nature, HPAIV are confined to the HA serotypes H5 and H7 from the 16 HA serotypes known in birds. However, experimental introduction of a polybasic cleavage site into non-H5/H7 HA may result in a highly pathogenic phenotype, indicating that emergence of HPAIV with novel serotypes is conceivable, but requires further adaptation to the chicken host.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Stech
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Yamamoto N, Soda K, Sakoda Y, Okamatsu M, Kida H. Proteins of duck influenza virus responsible for acquisition of pathogenicity in chickens. Virus Res 2013; 173:294-8. [PMID: 23434880 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2013.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 01/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Influenza virus rgVac1sub-P0 (H5N1) (rgVac1-P0), in which a pair of dibasic amino acid residues was introduced at the cleavage site of the HA of a reassortant of H5N2 and H7N1 viruses of duck origin, was low pathogenic in chickens. Vac1sub-P3 (H5N1) (Vac1-P3) was selected as a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus by 3 consecutive passages in chickens from low pathogenic strain rgVac1-P0. Comparison of amino acid sequences of the virus proteins and experimental infection of chickens with a series of recombinant viruses demonstrated that in addition to the HA, each of the PA, NP, M1, and M2 of Vac1-P3 are responsible for the acquisition of pathogenicity in chickens. These 4 proteins of Vac1-P3 synergistically contributed to efficient virus replication in chickens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Yamamoto
- Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita 18, Nishi 9, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Genetic characterization of HA gene of low pathogenic H9N2 influenza viruses isolated in Israel during 2006-2012 periods. Virus Genes 2012; 46:255-63. [PMID: 23271448 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-012-0852-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
H9N2 influenza viruses are isolated in Israel since 2000 and became endemic. From November 2006 to the beginning of 2012, many H9N2 viruses were identified, all belonged to the Asian G1-like lineage represented by A/qu/Hong Kong/G1/97 (H9N2). In the present study, 66 isolates were selected for their hemagglutinin gene characterization. Most H9N2 isolates were distributed between two main groups, identified as the 4th and 5th introductions. The 5th introduction, was represented by a compact cluster containing viruses isolated in 2011-2012; the 4th introduction was subdivided into two subgroups, A and B, each containing at least two clusters, which can be identified as A-1, A-2, B-1, and B2, respectively. Genetic analysis of the deduced HA proteins of viruses, belonging to the 4th and 5th introductions, revealed amino acid variations in 79 out of 542 positions. All isolates had typical low pathogenicity motifs at the hemagglutinin (HA) cleavage site. Most viruses had leucine at position 216 in a receptor binding pocket that enables the virus to bind successfully with the cellular receptors intrinsic to mammals, including humans. It was shown that the differences between the HA proteins of viruses used for vaccine production and local field isolates increased in parallel with the duration and intensity of vaccine use, illustrating the genetic diversity of the H9N2 viruses in Israel.
Collapse
|
34
|
Abstract
Influenza A viruses of the subtype H9N2 circulate worldwide and have become highly prevalent in poultry in many countries. Moreover, they are occasionally transmitted to humans, raising concern about their pandemic potential. Influenza virus infectivity requires cleavage of the surface glycoprotein hemagglutinin (HA) at a distinct cleavage site by host cell proteases. H9N2 viruses vary remarkably in the amino acid sequence at the cleavage site, and many isolates from Asia and the Middle East possess the multibasic motifs R-S-S-R and R-S-R-R, but are not activated by furin. Here, we investigated proteolytic activation of the early H9N2 isolate A/turkey/Wisconsin/1/66 (H9-Wisc) and two recent Asian isolates, A/quail/Shantou/782/00 (H9-782) and A/quail/Shantou/2061/00 (H9-2061), containing mono-, di-, and tribasic HA cleavage sites, respectively. All H9N2 isolates were activated by human proteases TMPRSS2 (transmembrane protease, serine S1 member 2) and HAT (human airway trypsin-like protease). Interestingly, H9-782 and H9-2061 were also activated by matriptase, a protease widely expressed in most epithelia with high expression levels in the kidney. Nephrotropism of H9N2 viruses has been observed in chickens, and here we found that H9-782 and H9-2061 were proteolytically activated in canine kidney (MDCK-II) and chicken embryo kidney (CEK) cells, whereas H9-Wisc was not. Virus activation was inhibited by peptide-mimetic inhibitors of matriptase, strongly suggesting that matriptase is responsible for HA cleavage in these kidney cells. Our data demonstrate that H9N2 viruses with R-S-S-R or R-S-R-R cleavage sites are activated by matriptase in addition to HAT and TMPRSS2 and, therefore, can be activated in a wide range of tissues what may affect virus spread, tissue tropism and pathogenicity.
Collapse
|
35
|
Li D, Xue M, Wang C, Wang J, Chen P. Bursopentine as a novel immunoadjuvant enhances both humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to inactivated H9N2 Avian Influenza virus in chickens. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2011; 18:1497-502. [PMID: 21795462 PMCID: PMC3165222 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.05133-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for identification of a new adjuvant capable of selectively promoting an efficient immune response for use with vaccines and especially subunit vaccines. Our pervious study showed that Bursopentine (BP5) is a novel immunomodulatory peptide and has the ability to significantly stimulate an antigen-specific immune response in mice. In this study, the potential adjuvant activities of BP5 were examined in chickens by coinjection of BP5 and an inactivated avian influenza virus (AIV) (A/Duck/Jiangsu/NJ08/05 [AIV H9N2 subtype]). The results suggested that BP5 markedly elevated serum hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers and antigen-specific antihemagglutinin (anti-HA) antibody (IgG) levels, induced both Th1 (interleukin 2 [IL-2] and gamma interferon [IFN-γ])- and Th2 (IL-4)-type cytokines, promoted the proliferation of peripheral blood lymphocytes, and increased populations of CD3(+) T cells and their subsets CD4(+) (CD3(+) CD4(+)) T cells and CD8(+) (CD3(+) CD8(+)) T cells. Furthermore, a virus challenge experiment revealed that BP5 contributes to protection against homologous avian influenza virus challenge by reducing viral replication in chicken lungs. This study indicates that the combination of inactivated AIVs and BP5 gives a strong immune response at both the humoral and cellular levels and implies that BP5 is a novel immunoadjuvant suitable for vaccine design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Deyuan Li
- Division of Key Lab of Animal Disease Diagnosis and Immunology, China's Department of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Nanjing, JingSu 210095, China.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Gohrbandt S, Veits J, Breithaupt A, Hundt J, Teifke JP, Stech O, Mettenleiter TC, Stech J. H9 avian influenza reassortant with engineered polybasic cleavage site displays a highly pathogenic phenotype in chicken. J Gen Virol 2011; 92:1843-1853. [DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.031591-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the field, highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (HPAIV) originate from low-pathogenic strains of the haemagglutinin (HA) serotypes H5 and H7 that have acquired a polybasic HA cleavage site. This observation suggests the presence of a cryptic virulence potential of H5 and H7 low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIV). Among all other LPAIV, the H9N2 strains are of particular relevance as they have become widespread across many countries in several avian species and have been transmitted to humans. To assess the potential of these strains to transform into an HPAIV, we introduced a polybasic cleavage site into the HA of a contemporary H9N2 isolate. Whereas the engineered polybasic HA cleavage site mutant remained a low-pathogenic strain like its parent virus, a reassortant expressing the modified H9 HA with engineered polybasic cleavage site and all the other genes from an H5N1 HPAIV became highly pathogenic in chicken with an intravenous pathogenicity index of 1.23. These results suggest that an HPAIV with a subtype other than H5 or H7 would only emerge under conditions where the HA gene could acquire a polybasic cleavage site and the other viral genes carry additional virulence determinants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Gohrbandt
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jutta Veits
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Angele Breithaupt
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Infectology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jana Hundt
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jens P. Teifke
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Infectology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Olga Stech
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Thomas C. Mettenleiter
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Jürgen Stech
- Friedrich Loeffler Institute, Institute of Molecular Biology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| |
Collapse
|