Medicinal plants used by the Tamang community in the Makawanpur district of central Nepal

Natural Clerodendrum-derived tick repellent: learning from Nepali culture

Ticks attaching to ear canals of humans and animals are the cause of otoacariasis, common in rural areas of Nepal. The plant Clerodendrum viscosum is used in multiple indigenous systems of medicine by ethnic communities in the Indo-Nepali-Malaysian region. Visiting the Chitwan National Park, we learned that in indigenous medicine, flower extract of C. viscosum is utilized to treat digestive disorders and extracts from leaves as tick repellent to prevent ticks from invading or to remove them from the ear canal. The objective of our study was to provide support to indigenous medicine by characterizing the in vivo effect of leave extracts on ticks under laboratory conditions and its phytochemical composition. We collected plant parts of C. viscosum (leaves and flowers) and mango (Mangifera indica) leaves at the Chitwan National Park, previously associated with repellent activity to characterize their effect on Ixodes ricinus ticks by in vivo bioassays. A Q-ToF high-resolution analysis (HPLC-ESI-QToF) was conducted to elucidate phenolic compounds with potential repellent activity. Clerodendrum viscosum and M. indica leaf extracts had the highest tick repellent efficacy (%E = 80-100%) with significant differences when compared to C. viscosum flowers extracts (%E = 20-60%) and phosphate-buffered saline. Phytochemicals with tick repellent function as caffeic acid, fumaric acid and p-coumaric acid glucoside were identified in C. viscosum leaf extracts by HPLC-ESI-QToF, but not in non-repellent flower extracts. These results support the Nepali indigenous medicine application of C. viscosum leaf extracts to repel ticks. Additional research is needed for the development of natural and green repellent formulations to reduce the risks associated with ticks resistant to acaricides.

Diversity, distribution, and sustainability of traditional medicinal plants in Kaski district, western Nepal

Medicinal plants are the primary source of traditional healthcare systems in many rural areas mostly in developing countries. This study aimed to document and analyze the diversity, distribution, and sustainability of the traditional medicinal plants used by the Gurung people of the Sikles region in western Nepal. Ethnobotanical data were collected through focus group discussions and individual interviews, and analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Prior informed consent was obtained before each interview. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices such as informant consensus factor, relative frequency of citation, and use values were also calculated. A possible association among these indices was tested using correlation analysis. A total of 115 wild medicinal plant species belonging to 106 genera and 71 families were documented. Asteraceae and Rosaceae were the dominant families whereas herbs were the most dominant life form. Roots were the most used plant part, paste was the most common method of preparation, and most of the medical formulations were taken orally. The highest number of medicinal plants were used to treat stomach disorders. The average informant consensus value of 0.79 indicates a high consensus among respondents in selecting medicinal plants. Lindera neesiana, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora, Paris polyphylla, and Bergenia ciliata were found to be high-ranking medicinal plants based on the relative frequency of citation and use value. The genders did not affect medicinal plants' knowledge but age had a significant correlation. Most of the informants agreed that medicinal plants are under pressure due to overharvesting and a lack of proper forest management practices. The number of medicinal plants reported from the study area indicates that the Gurung people possess rich traditional knowledge, and the vegetation of the Sikles region constitutes rich diversity of medicinal plants.

A review on ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of the genus Didymocarpus wall. (Gesneriaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Medicinal plants have been extensively used to treat various illnesses since the dawn of civilization. The genus Didymorcapus Wall. comprises 100 species widely distributed in the tropical regions of Asia, with a few found scattered in Africa and Australia. Species in this genus have long been used in folk medicine to treat various illnesses, including wounds, kidney stones, inflammations, asthma, flu, eczema, dysentery, fractures, colic etc. Some species have applications as weight loss agents, laxatives, and protective medication after childbirth.

AIM

To provide comprehensive information on the current knowledge of the ethnobotanical uses, phytochemical compounds, pharmacological applications, and toxicology of genus Didymocarpus to reveal its therapeutic potential, offering insights into future research opportunities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data were systematically obtained from books and online databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Sci Finder, Google Scholar, Science direct, ACS Publications, Elsevier, Wiley Online Library.

RESULTS

Seventeen Didymocarpus species have applications in traditional medicine in different Asian countries. A total of 166 compounds have been isolated from the genus Didymocarpus including terpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, fatty acids, chalcones, steroids, and others. Among these constituents, terpenoids, flavonoids, chalcones, and phenolics are the significant contributors to pharmacological activities of the genus Didymocarpus, possessing wide-reaching biological activities both in vivo and in vitro. The crude extracts and isolated phytochemical compounds from this genus have been shown to exhibit various pharmacological activities, including antiurolithiatic, nephro-protective, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, cytotoxic, wound healing, and antioxidant activities.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional uses and scientific evaluation of Didymocarpus indicate that Didymocarpus pedicellata is one of the most widely used species in some parts of the world. Although substantial progress on the chemical and pharmacological properties of Didymocarpus species has been made, further studies on the pharmacology and toxicology of these species are needed to ensure safety, efficacy, and quality. Also, further research on the structure-activity relationship of some of the isolated phytocompounds may improve their biological potency and scientific exploitation of traditional uses of the Didymocarpus taxa.

Ethnoveterinary use of plants and its implication for sustainable livestock management in Nepal

Traditional herbal remedies are used worldwide for treating both human and livestock health issues. Though such uses are relatively well-explored for humans, the ethnoveterinary uses of plant-based remedies in the healthcare choices of livestock in Nepal and associated knowledge are largely ignored. This is important as sustainable livestock production is an emerging issue. This study reviews the existing ethnobotanical studies conducted in Nepal and reports the use of 393 species of plants from 114 botanical families in ethnoveterinary practices. Thirty-four different ailments were treated using these plants. The present review revealed that Nepal has a rich diversity of ethnoveterinary plants. This study shows that traditional herbal medicine plays a significant role in meeting the livestock healthcare needs of Nepali farmers and hence is a viable practice. The study also contributes a wealth of knowledge about ethnoveterinary practices for further planning and use. This will provide an option for livestock farmers who cannot afford allopathic medicine or who are not allowed to use such medicine under organic farming schemes that are likely to be a part of sustainable livestock farming programs in Nepal soon.

Authentication of the therapeutic Lamiaceae taxa by using pollen traits observed under scanning electron microscopy

Herbal medicines are gaining popularity worldwide for human healthcare because of their therapeutic potential. However, adulteration and use of unauthentic raw herbals as substitutes have become a major issue for the local communities and industry for reasons of safety and efficacy. Therefore, the authentication of medicinal plants before their use in herbal medicines is a need of time. Hence, the present study was designed with an aim, to authenticate the therapeutic Lamiaceous taxa by using pollen traits observed under scanning electron microscopy. Pollen micro-morphological studies solve the problem through discrimination and correct identification of the Lamiaceae species from the adulterants. Based on pollen features, Lamiaceae were further divided into two sub-families Lamioideae (tricolpate) and Nepetoideae (hexa-colpate). The pollen grains of Lamioideae were found as small to medium-sized, tricolpate, radially/bilateral symmetrical, sub-spheroidal and oblate shape. Besides, exine patterns bireticulate, reticulate and micro-reticulate, colpus surface sculpturing as psilate, gemmate, scabrate, and verrucate have also been reported. A significant variation was found in the pattern of the reticulum, thickness, and the number of secondary lumina per primary lumen. Similarly, Nepetoideae has a hexa zono-colpate pollen but tri and tetra zono-colpate pollen have also been observed. Hence, this study contributes to the authentication and correct identification of medicinally important Lamiaceae taxa by using scanning electron microscopic techniques and can help to solve the adulteration problem. Highlights Authentication of medicinally important Lamiceous taxa was carried out through scanning electron microscopic techniques. Chemotaxonomic characterization was used for the accurate identification of the therapeutic taxa. The medicinal, palynological and phytochemical significance of Lamiaceae taxa were evaluated. A significant variation was seen in the palynological traits that help in the determination and authentication of the therapeutic Lamiaceous species. Based on the chemotaxonomic characterization, our study can help to solve the adulteration problem for the reason of safety and efficacy.

Phytochemistry, pharmacological activity, and potential health benefits of Gly cyrrhiza glabra

Nature has always been an excellent source for many therapeutic compounds providing us with many medicinal plants and microorganisms producing beneficial chemicals. Therefore, the demand for medicinal plants, cosmetics, and health products is always on the rise. One such plant from the Leguminosae family is licorice and the scientific name is Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. It is an herb-type plant with medicinal value. In the following article, we shall elaborately look at the plants' phytochemical constituents and the pharmacological impact of those substances. Several compounds such as glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizinic acid, isoliquiritin, and glycyrrhizic acid have been found in this plant, which can provide pharmacological benefit to us with its anti-cancer, anti-atherogenic, anti-diabetic, anti-asthmatic, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and antispasmodic activity. Alongside, these products have a different role in hepatoprotective, immunologic, memory-enhancing activity. They can stimulate hair growth, control obesity, and have anti-depressants, sedatives, and anticoagulant activity. This review examines recent studies on the phytochemical and pharmacological data and describes some side effects and toxicity of licorice and its bioactive components.

Ethnomedicinal and folklore inventory of wild plants used by rural communities of valley Samahni, District Bhimber Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

The current study describes ethnobotanical (EB) and traditional ethnomedicinal (TEMs) uses of medicinal plants (MPs) of Tehsil Samahni area of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Indigenous inhabitants of the area mostly reside in remote mountainous areas and depend on wild plants for life necessities and treatment of different diseases. This paper presents first quantitative ethnobotanical study describing the popularity level of MPs in indigenous communities by using relative popularity level (RPL) and rank order of priority (ROP) indices. The data of TEMs and EB uses were collected from 200 interviewees consisting of traditional herbal practioners (110) and farmers (90) from study area using structured and semi-structured interview methodology during year 2019. It was found that illiterate peasants have more knowledge and practice of TEMs than other people. A total of 150 plant species belonging to 58 families with botanical and local names, parts used, mode of recipes preparation, administration mechanism and TEMs uses were documented in systematic manner. It was explored that highest number (7.69%) of plants of Moraceae were used in TEMs and followed by species of Asteraceae (6.29%). The ethnobotanical data was analyzed by using quantitative ethnobotanical tools viz: informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value index (UVI), relative importance of plants (RIP), relative populatiry level (RPL) and rank order of popularity (ROP). The leaf ranked first (36.49%) and fruit 2nd (12.07%) being used in TEMs while prevalent use-form was decoction (29.28%), followed by tea (23.05%) and preferably taken as oral (46.66%). ICF analysis proved that diabetes, hypertension, rabies, snake sting and joint pains were the most prevalent occurring infirmities. The highest RFC (0.95) was found for Acacia modesta, followed by Boerhavia procumbens (RFC:0.87) and Berberis lycium (RFC:0.85). The relative importance of MPs was calculated by using UVI and Moringa oleifera showed highest (1.38), followed by Zanthoxylum armatum (1.25) and Withania somnifera (1.24) use-values. High UVI of plants depicts that these species are predominantly used in local health care system. The plants Phyllanthus emblica, Morus macruora, Justicia adhatoda and Melia azedarach depicted high values (1.00) of FL and RPL proving that these taxa are commonly used in indigenous medicines by local inhabitants and have better potential for drug discovery by ethnopharmacological analysis. Out of total, 26 species had more than 50% ROP index and Phyllanthus emblica and Flacourtia indica (ROP = 100) followed by Morus macruora (ROP: 97) were used to cure 'hypertension and hyperlipidemia' and 'cough, chest infection', respectively. It was found that 30% of total species were previously reported as medicinal while 70% plants were first time reported to be used in TEMs and authenticated by using of quantitative ethnobotanical tools. Ethnopharmacological potential of indigenous plants was confirmed by RIP and RPL indices which had been used to cure one or more body systems and were promulgated in the local herbal medicine system. The research provides clues to screen these plant species by using latest phytochemical and pharmacological analysis for novel drug discovery. This study will also be useful for conservation of bioculture traditional knowledge of indigenous communities and the most important is to conserve medicinal plants of the study area for future generations.

Utilization pattern and indigenous knowledge of wild medicinal plants among three ethnic groups in Makawanpur district, Central Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Nepal, wild plant resources play an important role in local communities' health care. However, this role and its patterns are poorly studied in many regions of the country. This study aimed at documenting the indigenous knowledge on the use patterns of medicinal plants of three ethnic groups from Makawanpur district, Central Nepal.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical information was collected through interviews with 165 respondents from the Bankaria, Newah and Tamang ethnic groups across five locations of different altitude levels. Botanical voucher samples were collected for scientific identification. Informant consensus factor (ICF) and relative frequency of citation (RFC) were calculated and relationships between knowledge on medicinal plants and location, ethnic group, gender and age of the respondents were analysed.

RESULTS

Altogether, 189 plant species were reported by the respondents. Medicinal plants were mostly collected from forest (130 spp.) and fallow land (49 spp.). Only few species such as Acorus calamus L., Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) Sm. and Mentha spicata L. were cultivated in homegardens. ICF values highlighted that common diseases treated were disorders of the digestive system, the skin and the respiratory system. Highest RFC values were found for Urtica dioica L., Terminalia chebula Retz. and Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten. Gender of the respondent had no influence on medicinal plant knowledge while a higher knowledge was detected in rural than urban locations and in those located in the lowlands. Respondents from the Newah ethnic group had significantly lower knowledge on medicinal plants than those from the Bankaria and Tamang ethnic groups. Age of respondents was significantly positively correlated with the reported use number of medicinal plants (r = 0.450; p < 0.001), species number (r = 0.468, p < 0.001) and number of illnesses treated (r = 0.468, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The knowledge and use patterns of medicinal plant species were related to the location as well as to the ethnic group and age of the respondents. This shows that it is important to cover a wide range of respondents in such a study to cover the different socio-cultural backgrounds and age classes. The presented study can help to identify those medicinal plant species with the highest importance and the highest utilization potential by integrating ethno-botanical information from the different ethnic groups and age classes. The most important medicinal plant species should be considered for pharmacological testing and for domestication.

Traditional Uses of Medicinal Plants by Ethnic People in the Kavrepalanchok District, Central Nepal

In rural areas of Nepal, where it is difficult to get access to Government health care facilities, people depend on medicinal plants and local healers for health problems. This study concerns an ethnobotanical survey of the Kavrepalanchok District, reporting some unusual uses of medicinal plants and original recipes. A total of 32 informants were interviewed, 24 of them being key informants. Ethnobotanical uses concerned 116 taxa, of which 101 were medicinal plants, with the most representative species belonging to Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Zingiberaceae. Ethnobotanical indexes were used to evaluate the ethnopharmacological importance of each plant species and the degree of agreement among the informants’ knowledge. Informant consensus factor (Fic) showed that the fever category had the greatest agreement. Highest fidelity level (FL) values were found for Calotropis gigantea used for dermatological diseases, Drymaria cordata for fever, Mangifera indica and Wrightia arborea for gastrointestinal disorders. Data document the richness of the local flora and the traditional knowledge on medicinal plant species used by ethnic communities in rural areas. The active involvement of local populations in the conservation and management of medicinal plant species will encourage future projects for the sustainable development of the biological and cultural diversity of these rural areas of Nepal.

Indigenous uses of wild and tended plant biodiversity maintain ecosystem services in agricultural landscapes of the Terai Plains of Nepal

BACKGROUND

Despite a rapidly accumulating evidence base quantifying ecosystem services, the role of biodiversity in the maintenance of ecosystem services in shared human-nature environments is still understudied, as is how indigenous and agriculturally dependent communities perceive, use, and manage biodiversity. The present study aims to document traditional ethnobotanical knowledge of the ecosystem service benefits derived from wild and tended plants in rice-cultivated agroecosystems, compare this to botanical surveys, and analyze the extent to which ecosystem services contribute social-ecological resilience in the Terai Plains of Nepal.

METHOD

Sampling was carried out in four landscapes, 22 Village District Committees, and 40 wards in the monsoon season. Data collection was based on transects walks to collect plant specimens, structured and semi-structured interviews, and participatory fieldwork in and around home gardens, farms, and production landscapes. We asked 180 farmers to free-list vernacular names and describe use-value of wild and tended plants in rice-cultivated agroecosystems. Uses were categorized into eight broad groupings, and 61 biomedical ailment classifications. We assessed if knowledge of plant species diversity and abundance differed with regard to caste, age, and gender.

RESULTS

Nepalese farmers have a deep knowledge of the use and management of the 391 vascular plant specimens identified, which provide key provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. Altogether, plants belong to 76 distinct plant species from 49 phylogenetic families: 56 are used to cure 61 ailments, 27 for rituals, 25 for food, 20 for timber, 17 for fuel, 17 for fodder, 11 for soil enhancement, and eight for pesticides. Four caste groups have statistically different knowledge, and younger informants report a lower average number of useful plants.

CONCLUSION

Agricultural landscapes in Nepal are reservoirs of biodiversity. The knowledge of the use of wild and tended plant species in and around these farms differs by the caste and age group of land manager. Conducting research on agroecosystems will contribute to a deeper understanding of how nature is perceived by locals, to more efficient management and conservation of the breadbasket of Nepal, and to the conservation of valuable, but disappearing traditional knowledge and practice.

Herbal Teas and Drinks: Folk Medicine of the Manoor Valley, Lesser Himalaya, Pakistan

In spite of the remarkable achievements in the healthcare sector over recent decades, inequities in accessibility and affordability of these facilities coexist throughout Pakistan. Thus, we aimed to explore and document the cultural knowledge of herbal teas used medicinally by the local community members of Manoor Valley, Pakistan. Field investigations were undertaken during the summer season of 2015–2017, and cultural practices of medicinal plant usage for treating various ailments were gathered through interviews of the local inhabitants. Ethnomedicinal insights of the medicinal plants used in herbal teas were gained with different indexes. Our results revealed 27 plant species, comprising of herbs (70%), shrubs (26%), and trees (4%), which were used for treating 21 diseases. Plants belonged to 18 families: Asteraceae and Lamiaceae were the leading families used for treating diseases. Diarrhea and gas troubles were the most frequent diseases. Based on indexes values, Cannabissativa was the dominant species used. The results revealed that 57% of medicinal uses are new to literature. This ethnomedicinal study is providing the first insights into the traditional medication system of Lesser Himalaya, Pakistan, through ethnomedicinal teas.

Ethnomedicinal knowledge of the rural communities of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Being an isolated locality and having a tough mountainous terrain, strong ethnomedicinal practices still prevail in Dhirkot and its allied areas, which have been rarely explored yet. The present study was intended with the aim to document and compare the traditional knowledge of local communities on botanical taxa of Dhirkot, Azad Jammu, and Kashmir.

METHODOLOGY

Ethnomedicinal data were collected from 74 informants using a semi-structured questionnaire in addition to field observation and group discussion. Various indices were also used to evaluate the ethnomedicinal data. Furthermore, the present findings were compared with previous reports to assess data novelty.

RESULT

A total of 140 medicinal plant species belonging to 55 families were recorded, which are used by local communities to treat 12 disease categories. Asteraceae was dominating with 20 species, followed by Poaceae, Lamiaceae, and Rosaceae (14, 11, and 10 species, respectively). Herbs were leading with 66% contribution, whereas leaves were the most utilized plant part with 29% utilization and decoction was the common mode of administration. Viola canescens depicted the highest use value and relative frequency of citation (1.7 and 0.92, respectively). Maximum informant consensus factor (0.88) was calculated for digestive and liver disorders. Five plant species including Berberis lycium Mentha arvensis Pyrus malus, Taraxacum officinale, and Viola canescens had 100% fidelity level.

CONCLUSION

Dhirkot and its allied areas harbor rich botanical and cultural diversity because of its unique geography and diverse climatic conditions. However, mostly, traditional ethnobotanical knowledge is restricted to healers, midwives, and older people, and could be extinct in the near future. Therefore, such documentation not only conserves traditional knowledge but may also contribute significantly to novel drug resources.

Workshop on proposal writing on research for health care professionals: a brief report

A one-day workshop on proposal writing for research for health care professionals was organized by Hospital Research Board (HRB), Nepal Cancer Hospital and Research Center Pvt. Ltd, Harisiddhi, Lalitpur, Nepal on 2nd March 2019. The main aim of this workshop was to identify, motivate and prepare health care professionals for conducting research in their respective professional institution in collaboration. The workshop was facilitated by international and national resource persons. The deliberations of the workshop were focused on seven topics: “Turning research into impact, Essentials of the research protocol, Why proposals are rejected?, Plagiarism in medical research, Research with medical records, Grant writing workshop, Manuscript writing workshop” based on a presentation by the different resource persons. Ninety-nine persons participated in the workshop including physicians, medical oncologists, pharmacists, nurses and other allied health professionals. The interactive teaching-learning methods were utilized in all sessions of the workshop. The feedback of the participants was taken on semi-structured feedback format. Overall evaluations from the feedback forms showed that majority (90%) of the participants agreed that the workshop achieved its objectives with a major recommendation as to the allocation of short duration for the workshop and timely organize of research activities regarding scientific writing. In conclusion, the workshop on research proposal writing for health care professionals was successfully organized and the participants are looking forward for future ones.

Ethnomedicinal Uses of Plant Resources in the Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski District, Nepal

Background: Medicinal plants are being used by the majority of the population throughout the world for their primary health care needs. The reliance is also prevalent in Nepal, aided by its ethnic and biological diversity. This study aimed to catalogue the ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants used by local people of Machhapuchchhre Rural Municipality of Kaski district. Methods: Data were collected between February 2017 and April 2018 from eight different villages of the Kaski district by using semi-structured interviews, guided field works, focus group discussions, and in-depth interviews. The reported traditional uses were supported by local assistants, cataloguing vernacular names and crosschecking with the earlier published and gray literature. Results: A total of 105 medicinal plants, belonging to 58 families and 99 genera were documented to treat 70 different diseases and ailments. The highest numbers of plants (37) were used for gastrointestinal disorders and the lowest (4) were used for female genital disorders. Commonly used parts were underground portions (28 species) followed by fruits and seeds (25 species each). The most preferred dosage form was juice, used for 50 ailments, and the oral route was the most favored route of administration (77 species). The medicinal properties of 22 plant species were found hitherto unreported in the district. Conclusions: The study area was found to be rich in plant resources and the people have ample knowledge on the use of medicinal plants. Due to a lack of proper documentation, conservation, and cultivation practices, valuable plant species are at risk of extinction. Thus, appropriate conservation measures and scientific assessment of plant-lore in the district is immediately required.

Ethnomedicinal uses of the local flora in Chenab riverine area, Punjab province Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Because of diverse topographical habitats, the Chenab River wetland harbors a wealth of medicinal and food plant species. This paper presents first quantitative assessment on the ethnobotanical use of plants by the local peoples residing in the Chenab riverine area.

METHODS

The ethnobotanical data were collected from six parts of the Chenab River wetland: Mandi Bahuddin, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Sargodha, and Sialkot during 2014 to 2015, using semi-structured interviews. Quantitative indices including informant consensus factor (FCI), relative frequency of citation (RFC), relative importance level (RIL), use value (UV), fidelity level (FL), and corrected fidelity level (CFL) were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

On the whole, 129 medicinal plant species belonging to 112 genera of 59 families were reported, with herbs as dominant life forms (51%). Poaceae was the leading family with 13 species, and leaves were the most frequently utilized plant parts (28%). Herbal medicines were mostly used in the form of powder or decoction, and were mainly taken orally. Withania somnifera, Solanum surattense, Solanum nigrum, Azadirachta indica, Ficus benghalensis, Morus nigra, Morus alba, Polygonum plebeium, and Tribulus terrestris were among the highly utilized plant species, with highest UV, RFC, RIL, FL, and CFL values. The reported ailments were grouped into 11 categories based on FCI values, whereas highest FIC was recorded for gastrointestinal diseases and glandular diseases (0.41 and 0.34, respectively). The use report (UR) and frequency of citation (FC) depicted strong positive correlation (r = 0.973; p = 0.01). The value of determination (r² = 0.95) indicating 95% variation in UR can be explained in terms of the FC.

CONCLUSION

The significant traditional knowledge possessed by local communities depicts their strong relation with phytodiversity. Reported data could be helpful in sustainable use and protection of plant species in the Chenab wetland, with special emphasis on medicinal plants. Furthermore, screening of plant-borne active ingredients and in vivo/in vitro pharmacological activities could be of interest for novel drug synthesis.

Paris in the spring: A review of the trade, conservation and opportunities in the shift from wild harvest to cultivation of Paris polyphylla (Trilliaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

P. polyphylla Smith is used in traditional medicine in China, India and Nepal and is likely to be similarly used through most of its geographic range. China is at the centre of demand for P. polyphylla where it is used as an ingredient in several very successful Chinese medicinal herbal formulations. The Chinese e-commerce platform 'alibaba.com', for example, lists 97 P. polyphylla items offered by 46 Asian suppliers, of which 21 are situated in the Chinese mainland, 12 in Nepal, 7 in India, 2 in Pakistan, and 1 each in Bhutan, Hong Kong, Thailand, and Vietnam. Products offered include the crude drug (dried whole or cut rhizomes), extracts and formulations containing this herbal drug.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

The aims of this review were to assess the scale of the P. polyphylla trade, reviewing evidence on the impacts of wild harvest on P. polyphylla populations and on the role of cultivation as an alternative to wild harvest.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, we reviewed published information on Paris population biology and studies on impacts of wild P. polyphylla harvest from across the geographic range of this species. Secondly, global trade data for P. polyphylla were analysed. Thirdly, we reviewed published information on P. polyphylla cultivation and made field visits to P. polyphylla cultivation areas in Yunnan and Sichuan.

RESULTS

Since the 1980s, there has been a 400-fold increase in the market price paid in China for P. polyphylla rhizomes, from 2.7 Chinese Yuan (CNY) per kg in the 1980s to market prices up to 1100 CNY per kg in 2017. Cross-border trade in dried P. polyphylla rhizomes occurs at three different scales. Firstly, an internal, national trade of P. polyphylla rhizomes within countries (such as India, Nepal and China). Secondly, trade in P. polyphylla rhizomes from Nepal (and possibly from Bhutan) to the two range states that have the largest traditional medicine trade in the world: China and India. Thirdly, trade in processed herbal products. In China, for example, P. polyphylla is widely used as an ingredient in several very successful herbal products, including a famous first aid treatment to stop bleeding. Some of these products are exported globally, in addition to entering into regional trade. Trade data in our review shows that c. 800-1050 t of P. polyphylla rhizomes are sold annually, significantly more than recorded in earlier studies. China is the only country where P. polyphylla is cultivated on a significant scale, although small-scale cultivation is taking place in India and Nepal.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the criteria for the inclusion of species in CITES Appendix II (Art. IV 2(a)), there is compelling evidence for adding Paris polyphylla. At the same time, cultivation of P. polyphylla outside of high conservation value habitats needs to be encouraged and supported. One way of doing this may be to develop separate, traceable supply chains for cultivated supplies in order to distinguish them from wild harvested stocks.

Exploration and local utilization of medicinal vegetation naturally grown in the Deusai plateau of Gilgit, Pakistan

In the study area, the traditional knowledge regarding the uses of local wild medicinal plants for the health care of human and domestic animals is totally in hold of old people. The young ones are unaware about such an indispensable practices. The objective of the current study was to transfer this sort of precious knowledge from old members of the community to young generations in documented form.

Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

This explorative study was undertaken for the first time in Kel village located in the Upper Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. The purpose was to document the indigenous knowledge of the native people used in the preparation of herbal medicines.

METHODS

To get the data on traditional uses of medicinal plants, 20 informants were interviewed. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, i.e., use value (UV), relative frequencies of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (Fic), fidelity level (FL), data matrix ranking (DMR), preference ranking (PR), and jaccard index (JI), were calculated for the recorded medicinal plants.

RESULTS

A total of 50 medicinal plants belonging to 33 families used in 13 disease categories were documented. Leaves were the frequently used plant parts, and decoction was the commonly used method for herbal medicine. Plants with high use value were Berberis lycium (2.05), Impatiens glandulifera (1.95), Artemisia scoparia (1.75), Ageratum conozoides (1.75), and Achillea millefolium (1.7). The highest RFC value was calculated for Berberis lycium (0.75), Cynoglossum lanceolatum (0.65), and Impatiens glandulifera and Achillea millefolium (0.60 each). The maximum informant consensus factor was for urinary system, cardiac diseases, baldness, and abortion and miscarriage (1.00). Berberis lyceum (95%) used in jaundice, hepatitis, typhoid, fever, and tuberculosis disorders. Plants with maximum fidelity level (FL) were Berberis lycium (95%) followed by Dioscorea bulbifera, Impatiens glandulifera, and Artemisia vulgaris (90%). Olea ferruginea was the most multipurpose plant and exports (21.2%) was the leading threat in the area. The pearson correlation coefficient (0.500) showed a positive correlation between the use value and relative frequency of citation.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides useful information about traditional uses of medicinal plants used by local communities in different ailments. The plants with the highest use values could be employed in pharmacological research and biotechnological approaches in order to achieve adequate revenue. Some of the plants in the study area are facing high threats of becoming rare, and conservation initiatives are needed to conserve them for sustainable management in the region.

An ethnobotanical survey of indigenous medicinal plants in Hafizabad district, Punjab-Pakistan

Present paper offers considerable information on traditional uses of medicinal plants by the inhabitants of Hafizabad district, Punjab-Pakistan. This is the first quantitative ethnobotanical study from the area comprising popularity level of medicinal plant species intendedby using relative popularity level (RPL) and rank order priority (ROP) indices.Ethnobotanical data were collected by interviewing 166 local informants and 35 traditional health practioners (THPs) from different localities of Hafizabad district. Demographic features of informants; life form, part used, methods of preparation, modes of application and ethnomedicinal uses were documented. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using quantitative tools, i.e. Relative frequency citation (RFC), use value (UV), informant consensus factor (ICF) fidelity level (FL), RPL and ROP indices. A total of 85 species belonging to 71 genera and 34 families were documented along with ethnomedicinal uses. Solanum surattense, Withania somnifera, Cyperus rotundus, Solanum nigrum and Melia azedarach were the most utilized medicinal plant species with highest used value. The reported ailments were classified into 11 disease categories based on ICF values and highest number of plant species was reported to treat dermatological and gastrointestinal disorders. Withania somnifera and Ranunculus sceleratus with maximum FL (100%), were used against gastrointestinal and urinary disorders, respectively. The RPL and ROP values were calculated to recognize the folk medicinal plant wealth; six out of 32 plant species (19%) were found popular, based on citation by more than half of the maximum number of informant viz. 26. Consequently, the ROP value for these species was more than 75. The comparative assessment with reported literature revealed 15% resemblance and 6% variation to previous data;however79% uses of the reported species were recorded for the first time. The diversity of medicinal plant species and associated traditional knowledge is significant in primary health care system. Medicinal plant species with high RPL values should be screened for comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological studies. This could be useful in novel drug discovery and to validate the ethomendicinal knowledge.

Indigenous knowledge and use of lichens by the lichenophilic communities of the Nepal Himalaya

BACKGROUND

The aim of the study was to document the prevailing indigenous knowledge and various uses of lichens among the lichenophilic communities in the hills and mountainous settlements of Nepal.

METHODS

Ethnic uses were recorded during twelve field trips, each of roughly 15 days in three consecutive years, through direct questionnaires administered to 190 respondents. Lichen samples were identified applying microscopic observation and thin layer chromatography (TLC). Voucher specimens of identified species are deposited at TUCH (Tribhuvan University Central Herbarium) in Nepal.

RESULTS

Lichens are being used in several ways by different communities of Nepal. We recorded the ethnic use of seven species of lichens belonging to four families (Parmeliaceae, Physciaceae, Ramalinaceae and Usneaceae) and six genera (Heterodermia, Everniastrum, Parmotrema, Ramalina, Thamnolia and Usnea) among the Limbu, Sherpa, Lama, Gurung, Rai, Dalit, Tamang, Chhetri and Brahman communities. The present study revealed six use values namely; Medicinal value (MV), food value (FV), ritual and spiritual value (RSV), aesthetic and decorative value (ADV), bedding value (BV) and ethno-veterinary value (EVV) from different parts of Nepal. Three lichen species, Everniastrum cirrhatum, E. nepalense and Parmotrema cetratum were consumed by the Limbu and Rai communities. The Limbu and Sherpa ethnic groups are regarded as most lichenophilic communities while respondents from Brahman, Chhetri and Tamang communities showed less interest in lichen uses.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study contributes to document traditional knowledge on various uses of lichens among nine communities with three different cultural background, inhabitants of eight different altitudinal levels of Nepal. Regarding the six values as identified from this research, significant difference (p = <0.05) were found along altitudinal gradients or locations of the settlements, cultural groups and ethnicity of the respondents.

A novel survey of the ethno medicinal knowledge of dental problems in Manoor Valley (Northern Himalaya), Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In the study area, the traditional knowledge and cultural practices of utilizing medicinal plants in the human healthcare is primarily restricted to the old age members of the community, while younger generation is mostly unaware of the natural wealth usage.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We provide the first ever ethno medicinal insights into the management of dental disorders in Pakistan. The prime objective of the study was to explore novel knowledge of these local and remote community members and share it with rest of the world in documented form.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Field surveys were arranged for collection and documentation of medicinal plants of Manoor valley during 2015. Total 71 local inhabitants were interviewed randomly through questionnaire. The data obtained were quantitatively analyzed using the use value (UVi), relative frequency citations (RFCs), fidelity level index (FL%) and consensus index (CI%). For novel uses all plants were thoroughly checked with previously published articles on the same disorder and analyzed through Jaccard index (JI) and Sorensen's similarity index (QS). The collected specimens after confirmation were submitted to the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan (HUP).

RESULTS

In present study 25 plants belonging to 17 families are reported, these plants were used commonly as ethno medicine. There were herbs (64%), shrubs (20%) and trees (16%) whereas, Lamiaceae with 4 species was the leading family. Majority of medicinal plant species were used in treatment of toothache (38%), wound healing (19%), gum infections (16%) whereas and lowest percentage of species were used for mouth ulcer as well as teeth powder (3%). Leaves were the most widely part used plant part in the treatment of different diseases (36%). Dominated medicinal plants with high used values were Juglans regia (UVi=0.94), Rumex dentatus (0.89) and Indigofera heterantha (0.88). Based on the RFC values, the most valuable and cited medicinal plant species used by the traditional drivers are Juglans regia having (RFCs=0.69) and Rumex dentatus (0.58). CI results show that most respondents percentage was for Juglans regia having CI%=69%, followed by Rumex dentatus (57.7%). Medicinal plants with high fidelity level and reported for one dental disorder were Berberis lycium, Geranium wallichianum, Lathyrus aphaca, Platanus orientalis, Sedum spp. and Urtica dioica for toothache. Further, new medicinal uses of Abies pindrow, Ajuga integrifolia, Berberis lycium, Urtica dioica, Indigofera heterantha were recorded for the first time from Pakistan and Astragalus grahamianus, Corydalis cornuta, Prunella vulgaris, Ranunculus muricatus, Rumex hastatus, Stellaria media, Tagetes minuta, Taraxacum officinale and Lathyrus aphaca, across the world for the current reported medicinal uses. All mentioned plant species are reported for the first time ever for dental disorders from Manoor Valley. Nonetheless, this is a novel study as no single ethno medicinal study on dental disorder up-till now has been reported from Pakistan.

CONCLUSION

The present study is the first ever documentation of ethno medicinal practices aiming at the dental disorders in Pakistan, which resulted in 64% of medicinal uses new claims. So, the reported species of remote valley should be further evaluated for proper experimentation and pharmacological activities to authenticate their current traditional usage. Field observation revealed vegetation of the area was generally threatened due to its unwise use by the local communities. Trends like deforestation, over grazing, habitat fragmentation and introduction of the exotic taxa were the visible threats. So conservation of such an important natural God gifted treasure is mandatory.

Medicinal plant diversity and traditional healing practices in eastern Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The rich floral and ethnic composition of eastern Nepal and the widespread utilization of locally available medicinal plants offer remarkable opportunity for ethnomedicinal research. The present paper aims to explore medicinal plant diversity and use in the remote villages of eastern Nepal. It also aims to evaluate ethnopharmacological significance of the documented use reports and identify species of high indigenous priority.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was undertaken in four villages located in the Sankhuwasabha district in eastern Nepal. Ethnomedicinal information was collected through structured interviews. The homogeneity of informant's knowledge and the relative importance of documented medicinal plants were validated by informant consensus factor and use value, respectively. Species preference for treatment of particular diseases was evaluated through fidelity level.

RESULTS

We reported medicinal properties of 48 species belonging to 33 families and 40 genera, for the treatment of 37 human ailments. The uses of 10 medicinal plants were previously undocumented. The informant consensus factor (F_IC) ranged between 0.38 and 1 with about 50% of values greater than 0.80 and over 75% of values greater than 0.70, indicating moderate to high consensus among the informants on the use of medicinal plants in the region. Swertia chirayita was the most preferred species with significantly high use values, followed by Paris polyphylla and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora.

CONCLUSIONS

The remote villages in eastern Nepal possess rich floral and cultural diversity with strong consensus among informants on utilization of plants for local healthcare. The direct pharmacological evidence for medicinal properties of most species indicates high reliability of documented information. Careful and systematic screening of compounds isolated from these plants could possibly provide good opportunity for the discovery of novel medicines to treat life-threatening human diseases. We recommend prioritization of medicinal plants and reinforcement of existing cultivation practices for sustainable management of high-priority species.

Role of Antioxidants and Natural Products in Inflammation

Inflammation is a comprehensive array of physiological response to a foreign organism, including human pathogens, dust particles, and viruses. Inflammations are mainly divided into acute and chronic inflammation depending on various inflammatory processes and cellular mechanisms. Recent investigations have clarified that inflammation is a major factor for the progression of various chronic diseases/disorders, including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, eye disorders, arthritis, obesity, autoimmune diseases, and inflammatory bowel disease. Free radical productions from different biological and environmental sources are due to an imbalance of natural antioxidants which further leads to various inflammatory associated diseases. In this review article, we have outlined the inflammatory process and its cellular mechanisms involved in the progression of various chronic modern human diseases. In addition, we have discussed the role of free radicals-induced tissue damage, antioxidant defence, and molecular mechanisms in chronic inflammatory diseases/disorders. The systematic knowledge regarding the role of inflammation and its associated adverse effects can provide a clear understanding in the development of innovative therapeutic targets from natural sources that are intended for suppression of various chronic inflammations associated diseases.

Investigation of traditional medicinal floral knowledge of Sarban Hills, Abbottabad, KP, Pakistan

ETHNO PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethno medicinal traditional knowledge regarding the uses of indigenous medicinal plants for treating various human infectious diseases is totally in hold of the elder community members. The young generation is not much aware about such vital traditional medicinal practices.

AIM OF STUDY

To document, accumulate and widely disseminate the massive indigenous knowledge of century's practiced therapeutic uses of medicinal plants by the local people living in this area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 134 local inhabitants (78 male and 56 female) were interviewed through questionnaire method. The data obtained were quantitatively analyzed through the use value, fidelity level index and relative frequency citation. Plants specimen were preserved and mounted on herbarium sheets and labeled, cataloged and deposited with voucher numbers in Hazara University Herbarium, Mansehra, Pakistan (HUP).

RESULTS

74 plant species belonging to 70 genera and 42 families were documented in the current study. These medicinal plant species are used commonly as an ethno medicine against 56 various diseases such as digestive disorder, cough, pain and skin diseases etc. Herbaceous plant species were the dominant among plants studied which were 57% of the total plants, followed by shrubs (23%) and trees (20%). Asteraceae was the leading family among collected medicinal plant species (10.81%). Maximum medicinal plant species were used for treatment of digestive disorders (9.09%) and cough (7.44%). Most widely part used is leaf (27.9%), followed by fruit (13.5%) and seed (13.5%) for the treatment of different ailments by the traditional healers. The medicinal plant species with greater use values were Berberis lycium (0.91) and Cannabis sativa (0.81). The medicinal plant species with maximum fidelity level were Ziziphus jujuba (100%) and Lonicera caprifolium (92.31%) whereas the medicinal with most relative frequency citation were B. lycium (0.313), Ziziphus nummularia (0.276). The comparative result reveals that 36% of medicinal plant species were reported for the first time from Abbottabad regarding their uses, whereas 26% of plant species were reported with different medicinal uses. Brugmansia suaveolens and Allium griffithianum were recorded for the first time from Pakistan as well as from other countries across the globe for currently reported medicinal uses.

CONCLUSION

The current study revealed the importance to document and launch list of all possible plants that are used in ethno medicinal practices in the study area. Future antimicrobial, antivirals, and pharmacological studies are required to ratify the efficacy and safety of the medicinal plants species.

An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by ethnic people in Parbat district of western Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nepal, a mountainous country having diversified topographic and climatic conditions, gives rise to a wide range of flora and fauna. In villages ethnic people, including Magar and Majhi highly depend on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare. Due to overexploitation, encroachment in forest for arable land and destruction of natural habitat, potentially useful medicinal plants are going to be threatened in their natural environment. There is a strong need to enlist highly valuable medicinal plants and use traditional knowledge to protect, utilize and manage them in ex-situ and in-situ conservation. The present research investigates and documents traditional knowledge on medicinal plants utilization as natural medicine by two ethnic communities Magar and Majhi of Parbat district in Western Nepal.

METHODS

Ethnomedicinal data was collected during 2012-2013 by the following standard ethnobotanical methods. Data about medicinal uses of herbs, shrubs and trees were collected using semi-structured questionnaire, field observation, personal interview and group discussion with 334 (130 men and 204 women) pre-identified local informants, among which 13 male and 2 female were local healers. Statistical tool, informant consensus factors (F(IC)) and fidelity level (FL) values were used to analyze the importance of ethnomedicinal plants.

RESULTS

A total of 132 ethnomedicinal plant species belonging to 99 genera and 67 families have been documented. These plants are used to treat various diseases and disorders grouped under 12 disease categories, with the highest number of species (61) being used for gastro-intestinal, parasitic and hepatobiliary disorders (FIC=0.78%), followed by blood and lymphatic system (F(IC)=0.76%) category. The highest fidelity level (FL) values recorded in Paris polyphylla (FL=96.0%) followed by Bergenia ciliata (FL=95.0%) confirms that these plants are the best plant species with medicinal properties.

CONCLUSIONS

The two ethnic communities, Magar and Majhi, in Parbat district are rich in ethnomedicinal knowledge. The high degree of consensus among the informants suggests that current use and knowledge are still strong, and thus the preservation of indigenous knowledge would show good foresight in acting before much has been lost.

AP-1-Targeting Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the Methanolic Extract of Persicaria chinensis

In traditional Chinese medicine, Persicaria chinensis L. has been prescribed to cure numerous inflammatory disorders. We previously analyzed the bioactivity of the methanol extract of this plant (Pc-ME) against LPS-induced NO and PGE2 in RAW264.7 macrophages and found that it prevented HCl/EtOH-induced gastric ulcers in mice. The purpose of the current study was to explore the molecular mechanism by which Pc-ME inhibits activator protein- (AP-) 1 activation pathway and mediates its hepatoprotective activity. To investigate the putative therapeutic properties of Pc-ME against AP-1-mediated inflammation and hepatotoxicity, lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) stimulated RAW264.7 and U937 cells, a monocyte-like human cell line, and an LPS/D-galactosamine- (D-GalN-) induced acute hepatitis mouse model were employed. The expression of LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin- (IL-) 1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) was significantly diminished by Pc-ME. Moreover, Pc-ME reduced AP-1 activation and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation in both LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and differentiated U937 cells. Additionally, we highlighted the hepatoprotective and curative effects of Pc-ME pretreated orally in a mouse model of LPS/D-GalN-intoxicated acute liver injury by demonstrating the significant reduction in elevated serum AST and ALT levels and histological damage. Therefore, these results strongly suggest that Pc-ME could function as an antihepatitis remedy suppressing MAPK/AP-1-mediated inflammatory events.

In vivo and in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of Persicaria chinensis methanolic extract targeting Src/Syk/NF-κB

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGIC RELEVANCE

Persicaria chinensis L. (Polygonaceae) [also synonym as Polygonum chimnense L.] has been used as Chinese traditional medicine to treat ulcer, eczema, stomach ache, and various inflammatory skin diseases. Due to no molecular pharmacological evidence of this anti-inflammatory herbal plant, we investigated the inhibitory mechanisms and target proteins contributing to the anti-inflammatory responses of the plant by using its methanolic extract (Pc-ME).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We used lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated macrophages and a murine HCl/EtOH-induced gastritis model to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of Pc-ME. HPLC analysis was employed to identify potential active components of this extract. Molecular approaches including kinase assays, reporter gene assays, immunoprecipitation analysis, and overexpression of target enzymes were used to confirm target enzymes.

RESULTS

Pc-ME inhibited LPS-induced nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 release by RAW264.7 macrophages and ameliorated HCl/EtOH-induced gastric ulcers in mice. The nuclear translocation of NF-κB (p65 and p50) was suppressed by Pc-ME. Phosphorylation of Src and Syk, their kinase activities, and formation of the signaling complex of these proteins were repressed by Pc-ME. Phosphorylation of p85 and Akt induced by Src or Syk overexpression was blocked by Pc-ME. In the mouse gastritis model, orally administered Pc-ME suppressed the increased phosphorylation of IκBα, Αkt, Src, and Syk. Caffeic acid, kaempferol, and quercetin, identified as major anti-inflammatory components of Pc-ME by HPLC, displayed strong nitric oxide inhibitory activity in LPS-treated macrophages.

CONCLUSION

Pc-ME might play a pivotal ethnopharmacologic role as an anti-inflammatory herbal medicine by targeting Syk and Src kinases and their downstream transcription factor NF-κB.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastrointestinal disorders cause morbidity and can lead to mortality, especially in the developing world where sanitation is deficient. A large part of the human population relies on medicinal plants for treating various diseases, including gastrointestinal disorders. The present review summarizes the traditional uses of medicinal plants of Nepal used to treat gastrointestinal disorders, and evaluates their bio-efficacy based on a review of the available phytochemical and pharmacological literature.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We searched different electronic databases and libraries for the literature on medicinal plants used in Nepal to treat gastrointestinal disorders. For each species, we also searched the literature for information on conservation status, as well as for phytochemical and pharmacological studies in support of the ethnobotanical information. We used principal component analysis to explore the relation among disorders and plant families, plant life forms, plant parts and preparation modes. We also performed permutation tests to determine if botanical families were used more often than expected considering their availability in the Nepali flora.

RESULTS

We documented a total of 947 species belonging to 158 families and 586 genera used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in Nepal. Diarrhea was the disorder treated by the highest number of species (348), followed by stomachache (340) and dysentery (307). Among the reported species, five were endemic to Nepal, whereas 16 orchid species were protected under CITES Appendices II and III. The randomization test showed that species belonging to 14 families were used less often than expected, whereas plants belonging to 25 families were used more often than expected. The PCA scatter plot showed distinct groups of gastrointestinal disorders treated with similar plant life forms, plant parts, and/or preparation modes. We found 763 phytochemical studies on 324 species and 654 pharmacological studies on 269 species.

CONCLUSION

We showed the diversity and importance of medicinal plants used to treat gastrointestinal disorders in the traditional health care system of Nepal. As such disorders are still causing several deaths each year, it is of the utmost importance to conduct phytochemical and pharmacological studies on the most promising species. It is also crucial to increase access to traditional medicine, especially in rural areas. Threatened species need special attention for traditional herbal medicine to be exploited sustainably.

Ethnomedicinal practices in the highlands of central Nepal: a case study of Syaphru and Langtang village in Rasuwa district

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The present paper documents the utilization of medicinal plants for the treatment of various human ailments in two village development committees in the Rasuwa district of central Nepal. It also evaluates the ethnopharmacological significance of the documented reports and identifies species of high indigenous priority in local therapeutics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethnobotanical information was collected by interviews and group discussions using standard ethnobotanical procedures. The homogeneity of informant׳s knowledge was validated by Informant consensus factor (F(IC)) and the relative importance of a plant species used as medicine in the study area was calculated with the help of use value (UV).

RESULTS

The present study identified a total of 46 medicinal plants belonging to 26 families used for the treatment of 38 human ailments. Besides medicinal uses, the study has also documented the culinary and cultural use of 13 species of medicinal plants. The most commonly used part was root constituting about 42% of the total utilized plants. The most commonly used form of preparation was paste (31.91%). We found new usage reports for 9 medicinal plants. The F(IC) value in the present study ranged from 0.66 to 1 with 84.6% values greater than 0.8 indicating high consensus among the informants. The most preferred species was Neopicrorhiza scrophulariflora (UV=0.96) and the lowest used value was found for Lyonia ovalifolia (UV=0.32).

CONCLUSIONS

People of Rasuwa possess rich traditional knowledge in medicinal plants utilization with strong consensus among local people on the utilization of species evident by higher F(IC) values in different ailment categories. Strong pharmacological evidence for a majority of species being currently used as medicines shows that the plants used in local therapeutics are likely to be more effective in treating different medical ailments. The bioactive compounds extracted from these medicinal plants could subsequently be used in the creation of novel drugs to treat life threatening human diseases. The species with high use values are the ones likely to be more vulnerable because of high demand and high collection pressure. Therefore, it is imperative to prioritize such species for cultivation and sustainable management in order to ensure their long term availability.