The homeobox transcription factor Even-skipped regulates acquisition of electrical properties in Drosophila neurons

40 years of homeodomain transcription factors in the Drosophila nervous system

Drosophila nervous system development progresses through a series of well-characterized steps in which homeodomain transcription factors (HDTFs) play key roles during most, if not all, phases. Strikingly, although some HDTFs have only one role, many others are involved in multiple steps of the developmental process. Most Drosophila HDTFs engaged in nervous system development are conserved in vertebrates and often play similar roles during vertebrate development. In this Spotlight, we focus on the role of HDTFs during embryogenesis, where they were first characterized.

The Role of Even-Skipped in Drosophila Larval Somatosensory Circuit Assembly

Proper somatosensory circuit assembly is critical for processing somatosensory stimuli and for responding accordingly. In comparison to other sensory circuits (e.g., olfactory and visual), somatosensory circuits have unique anatomy and function. However, understanding of somatosensory circuit development lags far behind that of other sensory systems. For example, there are few identified transcription factors required for integration of interneurons into functional somatosensory circuits. Here, as a model, we examine one type of somatosensory interneuron, Even-skipped (Eve) expressing laterally placed interneurons (ELs) of the Drosophila larval nerve cord. Eve is a highly conserved, homeodomain transcription factor known to play a role in cell fate specification and neuronal axon guidance. Because marker genes are often functionally important in the cell types they define, we deleted eve expression specifically from EL interneurons. On the cell biological level, using single neuron labeling, we find eve plays several previously undescribed roles in refinement of neuron morphogenesis. Eve suppresses aberrant neurite branching, promotes axon elongation, and regulates dorsal-ventral dendrite position. On the circuit level, using optogenetics, calcium imaging, and behavioral analysis, we find eve expression is required in EL interneurons for the normal encoding of somatosensory stimuli and for normal mapping of outputs to behavior. We conclude that the eve gene product coordinately regulates multiple aspects of EL interneuron morphogenesis and is critically required to properly integrate EL interneurons into somatosensory circuits. Our data shed light on the genetic regulation of somatosensory circuit assembly.

Constructing and Tuning Excitatory Cholinergic Synapses: The Multifaceted Functions of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Drosophila Neural Development and Physiology

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAchRs) are widely distributed within the nervous system across most animal species. Besides their well-established roles in mammalian neuromuscular junctions, studies using invertebrate models have also proven fruitful in revealing the function of nAchRs in the central nervous system. During the earlier years, both in vitro and animal studies had helped clarify the basic molecular features of the members of the Drosophila nAchR gene family and illustrated their utility as targets for insecticides. Later, increasingly sophisticated techniques have illuminated how nAchRs mediate excitatory neurotransmission in the Drosophila brain and play an integral part in neural development and synaptic plasticity, as well as cognitive processes such as learning and memory. This review is intended to provide an updated survey of Drosophila nAchR subunits, focusing on their molecular diversity and unique contributions to physiology and plasticity of the fly neural circuitry. We will also highlight promising new avenues for nAchR research that will likely contribute to better understanding of central cholinergic neurotransmission in both Drosophila and other organisms.

Drosophila Embryonic CNS Development: Neurogenesis, Gliogenesis, Cell Fate, and Differentiation

The Drosophila embryonic central nervous system (CNS) is a complex organ consisting of ∼15,000 neurons and glia that is generated in ∼1 day of development. For the past 40 years, Drosophila developmental neuroscientists have described each step of CNS development in precise molecular genetic detail. This has led to an understanding of how an intricate nervous system emerges from a single cell. These studies have also provided important, new concepts in developmental biology, and provided an essential model for understanding similar processes in other organisms. In this article, the key genes that guide Drosophila CNS development and how they function is reviewed. Features of CNS development covered in this review are neurogenesis, gliogenesis, cell fate specification, and differentiation.

Transcriptional mechanisms of motor neuron development in vertebrates and invertebrates

Across phylogeny, motor neurons (MNs) represent a single but often remarkably diverse neuronal class composed of a multitude of subtypes required for vital behaviors, such as eating and locomotion. Over the past decades, seminal studies in multiple model organisms have advanced our molecular understanding of the early steps of MN development, such as progenitor specification and acquisition of MN subtype identity, by revealing key roles for several evolutionarily conserved transcription factors. However, very little is known about the molecular strategies that allow distinct MN subtypes to maintain their identity- and function-defining features during the late steps of development and postnatal life. Here, we provide an overview of invertebrate and vertebrate studies on transcription factor-based strategies that control early and late steps of MN development, aiming to highlight evolutionarily conserved gene regulatory principles necessary for establishment and maintenance of neuronal identity.

Transient voltage-activated K+ currents in central antennal lobe neurons: cell type-specific functional properties

In this study we analyzed transient voltage-activated K+ currents (IA) of projection neurons and local interneurons in the antennal lobe of the cockroach Periplaneta americana The antennal lobe is the first synaptic processing station for olfactory information in insects. Local interneurons are crucial for computing olfactory information and form local synaptic connections exclusively in the antennal lobe, whereas a primary task of the projection neurons is the transfer of preprocessed olfactory information from the antennal lobe to higher order centers in the protocerebrum. The different physiological tasks of these neurons require specialized physiological and morphological neuronal phenotypes. We asked if and how the different physiological phenotypes are reflected in the functional properties of IA, which is crucial for shaping intrinsic electrophysiological properties of neurons. Whole cell patch-clamp recordings from adult male P. americana showed that all their central antennal lobe neurons can generate IA The current exhibited marked cell type-specific differences in voltage dependence of steady-state activation and inactivation, and differences in inactivation kinetics during sustained depolarization. Pharmacological experiments revealed that IA in all neuron types was partially blocked by α-dendrotoxin and phrixotoxin-2, which are considered blockers with specificity for Shaker- and Shal-type channels, respectively. These findings suggest that IA in each cell type is a mixed current generated by channels of both families. The functional role of IA was analyzed in experiments under current clamp, in which portions of IA were blocked by α-dendrotoxin or phrixotoxin-2. These experiments showed that IA contributes significantly to the intrinsic electrophysiological properties, such as the action potential waveform and membrane excitability.NEW & NOTEWORTHY In the insect olfactory system, projection neurons and local interneurons have task-specific electrophysiological and morphological phenotypes. Voltage-activated potassium channels play a crucial role in shaping functional properties of these neurons. This study revealed marked cell type-specific differences in the biophysical properties of transient voltage-activated potassium currents in central antennal lobe neurons.

Properties and physiological function of Ca2+-dependent K+ currents in uniglomerular olfactory projection neurons

Ca(2+)-activated potassium currents [IK(Ca)] are an important link between the intracellular signaling system and the membrane potential, which shapes intrinsic electrophysiological properties. To better understand the ionic mechanisms that mediate intrinsic firing properties of olfactory uniglomerular projection neurons (uPNs), we used whole cell patch-clamp recordings in an intact adult brain preparation of the male cockroach Periplaneta americana to analyze IK(Ca) In the insect brain, uPNs form the principal pathway from the antennal lobe to the protocerebrum, where centers for multimodal sensory processing and learning are located. In uPNs the activation of IK(Ca) was clearly voltage and Ca(2+) dependent. Thus under physiological conditions IK(Ca) is strongly dependent on Ca(2+) influx kinetics and on the membrane potential. The biophysical characterization suggests that IK(Ca) is generated by big-conductance (BK) channels. A small-conductance (SK) channel-generated current could not be detected. IK(Ca) was sensitive to charybdotoxin (CTX) and iberiotoxin (IbTX) but not to apamin. The functional role of IK(Ca) was analyzed in occlusion experiments under current clamp, in which portions of IK(Ca) were blocked by CTX or IbTX. Blockade of IK(Ca) showed that IK(Ca) contributes significantly to intrinsic electrophysiological properties such as the action potential waveform and membrane excitability.

Even-Skipped(+) Interneurons Are Core Components of a Sensorimotor Circuit that Maintains Left-Right Symmetric Muscle Contraction Amplitude

Bilaterally symmetric motor patterns--those in which left-right pairs of muscles contract synchronously and with equal amplitude (such as breathing, smiling, whisking, and locomotion)--are widespread throughout the animal kingdom. Yet, surprisingly little is known about the underlying neural circuits. We performed a thermogenetic screen to identify neurons required for bilaterally symmetric locomotion in Drosophila larvae and identified the evolutionarily conserved Even-skipped(+) interneurons (Eve/Evx). Activation or ablation of Eve(+) interneurons disrupted bilaterally symmetric muscle contraction amplitude, without affecting the timing of motor output. Eve(+) interneurons are not rhythmically active and thus function independently of the locomotor CPG. GCaMP6 calcium imaging of Eve(+) interneurons in freely moving larvae showed left-right asymmetric activation that correlated with larval behavior. TEM reconstruction of Eve(+) interneuron inputs and outputs showed that the Eve(+) interneurons are at the core of a sensorimotor circuit capable of detecting and modifying body wall muscle contraction.

Transient BK outward current enhances motoneurone firing rates during Drosophila larval locomotion

KEY POINTS

We combine in situ electrophysiology with genetic manipulation in Drosophila larvae aiming to investigate the role of fast calcium-activated potassium currents for motoneurone firing patterns during locomotion. We first demonstrate that slowpoke channels underlie fast calcium-activated potassium currents in these motoneurones. By conducting recordings in semi-intact animals that produce crawling-like movements, we show that slowpoke channels are required specifically in motoneurones for maximum firing rates during locomotion. Such enhancement of maximum firing rates occurs because slowpoke channels prevent depolarization block by limiting the amplitude of motoneurone depolarization in response to synaptic drive. In addition, slowpoke channels mediate a fast afterhyperpolarization that ensures the efficient recovery of sodium channels from inactivation during high frequency firing. The results of the present study provide new insights into the mechanisms by which outward conductances facilitate neuronal excitability and also provide direct confirmation of the functional relevance of precisely regulated slowpoke channel properties in motor control.

ABSTRACT

A large number of voltage-gated ion channels, their interactions with accessory subunits, and their post-transcriptional modifications generate an immense functional diversity of neurones. Therefore, a key challenge is to understand the genetic basis and precise function of specific ionic conductances for neuronal firing properties in the context of behaviour. The present study identifies slowpoke (slo) as exclusively mediating fast activating, fast inactivating BK current (ICF ) in larval Drosophila crawling motoneurones. Combining in vivo patch clamp recordings during larval crawling with pharmacology and targeted genetic manipulations reveals that ICF acts specifically in motoneurones to sculpt their firing patterns in response to a given input from the central pattern generating (CPG) networks. First, ICF curtails motoneurone postsynaptic depolarizations during rhythmical CPG drive. Second, ICF is activated during the rising phase of the action potential and mediates a fast afterhyperpolarization. Consequently, ICF is required for maximal intraburst firing rates during locomotion, probably by allowing recovery from inactivation of fast sodium channels and decreased potassium channel activation. This contrasts the common view that outward conductances oppose excitability but is in accordance with reports on transient BK and Kv3 channel function in multiple types of vertebrate neurones. Therefore, our finding that ICF enhances firing rates specifically during bursting patterns relevant to behaviour is probably of relevance to all brains.

Dam it's good! DamID profiling of protein-DNA interactions

The interaction of proteins with chromatin is fundamental for several essential cellular processes. During the development of an organism, genes must to be tightly regulated both temporally and spatially. This is achieved through the action of chromatin‐binding proteins such as transcription factors, histone modifiers, nucleosome remodelers, and lamins. Furthermore, protein–DNA interactions are important in the adult, where their perturbation can lead to disruption of homeostasis, metabolic dysregulation, and diseases such as cancer. Understanding the nature of these interactions is of paramount importance in almost all areas of molecular biological research. In recent years, DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) has emerged as one of the most comprehensive and versatile methods available for profiling protein–DNA interactions on a genomic scale. DamID has been used to map a variety of chromatin‐binding proteins in several model organisms and has the potential for continued adaptation and application in the field of genomic biology. WIREs Dev Biol 2016, 5:25–37. doi: 10.1002/wdev.205

For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Transcriptional selectors, masters, and combinatorial codes: regulatory principles of neural subtype specification

The broad range of tissue and cellular diversity of animals is generated to a large extent by the hierarchical deployment of sequence-specific transcription factors and co-factors (collectively referred to as TF's herein) during development. Our understanding of these developmental processes has been facilitated by the recognition that the activities of many TF's can be meaningfully described by a few functional categories that usefully convey a sense for how the TF's function, and also provides a sense for the regulatory organization of the developmental processes in which they participate. Here, we draw on examples from studies in Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and vertebrates to discuss how the terms spatial selector, temporal selector, tissue/cell type selector, terminal selector and combinatorial code may be usefully applied to categorize the activities of TF's at critical steps of nervous system construction. While we believe that these functional categories are useful for understanding the organizational principles by which TF's direct nervous system construction, we however caution against the assumption that a TF's function can be solely or fully defined by any single functional category. Indeed, most TF's play diverse roles within different functional categories, and their roles can blur the lines we draw between these categories. Regardless, it is our belief that the concepts discussed here are helpful in clarifying the regulatory complexities of nervous system development, and hope they prove useful when interpreting mutant phenotypes, designing future experiments, and programming specific neuronal cell types for use in therapies. WIREs Dev Biol 2015, 4:505–528. doi: 10.1002/wdev.191

For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Transcription factors and effectors that regulate neuronal morphology

Transcription factors establish the tremendous diversity of cell types in the nervous system by regulating the expression of genes that give a cell its morphological and functional properties. Although many studies have identified requirements for specific transcription factors during the different steps of neural circuit assembly, few have identified the downstream effectors by which they control neuronal morphology. In this Review, we highlight recent work that has elucidated the functional relationships between transcription factors and the downstream effectors through which they regulate neural connectivity in multiple model systems, with a focus on axon guidance and dendrite morphogenesis.

Spinal neurons require Islet1 for subtype-specific differentiation of electrical excitability

BACKGROUND

In the spinal cord, stereotypic patterns of transcription factor expression uniquely identify neuronal subtypes. These transcription factors function combinatorially to regulate gene expression. Consequently, a single transcription factor may regulate divergent development programs by participation in different combinatorial codes. One such factor, the LIM-homeodomain transcription factor Islet1, is expressed in the vertebrate spinal cord. In mouse, chick and zebrafish, motor and sensory neurons require Islet1 for specification of biochemical and morphological signatures. Little is known, however, about the role that Islet1 might play for development of electrical membrane properties in vertebrates. Here we test for a role of Islet1 in differentiation of excitable membrane properties of zebrafish spinal neurons.

RESULTS

We focus our studies on the role of Islet1 in two populations of early born zebrafish spinal neurons: ventral caudal primary motor neurons (CaPs) and dorsal sensory Rohon-Beard cells (RBs). We take advantage of transgenic lines that express green fluorescent protein (GFP) to identify CaPs, RBs and several classes of interneurons for electrophysiological study. Upon knock-down of Islet1, cells occupying CaP-like and RB-like positions continue to express GFP. With respect to voltage-dependent currents, CaP-like and RB-like neurons have novel repertoires that distinguish them from control CaPs and RBs, and, in some respects, resemble those of neighboring interneurons. The action potentials fired by CaP-like and RB-like neurons also have significantly different properties compared to those elicited from control CaPs and RBs.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our findings suggest that, for both ventral motor and dorsal sensory neurons, Islet1 directs differentiation programs that ultimately specify electrical membrane as well as morphological properties that act together to sculpt neuron identity.

The transcription factors islet and Lim3 combinatorially regulate ion channel gene expression

Expression of appropriate ion channels is essential to allow developing neurons to form functional networks. Our previous studies have identified LIM-homeodomain (HD) transcription factors (TFs), expressed by developing neurons, that are specifically able to regulate ion channel gene expression. In this study, we use the technique of DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) to identify putative gene targets of four such TFs that are differentially expressed in Drosophila motoneurons. Analysis of targets for Islet (Isl), Lim3, Hb9, and Even-skipped (Eve) identifies both ion channel genes and genes predicted to regulate aspects of dendritic and axonal morphology. Significantly, some ion channel genes are bound by more than one TF, consistent with the possibility of combinatorial regulation. One such gene is Shaker (Sh), which encodes a voltage-dependent fast K(+) channel (Kv1.1). DamID reveals that Sh is bound by both Isl and Lim3. We used body wall muscle as a test tissue because in conditions of low Ca(2+), the fast K(+) current is carried solely by Sh channels (unlike neurons in which a second fast K(+) current, Shal, also contributes). Ectopic expression of isl, but not Lim3, is sufficient to reduce both Sh transcript and Sh current level. By contrast, coexpression of both TFs is additive, resulting in a significantly greater reduction in both Sh transcript and current compared with isl expression alone. These observations provide evidence for combinatorial activity of Isl and Lim3 in regulating ion channel gene expression.

Ndae1 expression and regulation in Drosophila embryos

The construction and prediction of cell fate maps at the whole embryo level require the establishment of an accurate atlas of gene expression patterns throughout development and the identification of the corresponding cis-regulatory sequences. However, while the expression and regulation of genes encoding upstream developmental regulators such as transcription factors or signaling pathway components have been analyzed in detail, up to date the number of cis-regulatory sequences identified for downstream effector genes, like ion channels, pumps and exchangers, is very low. The control and regulation of ion homeostasis in each cell, including at blastoderm stages, are essential for normal embryonic development. In this study, we analyzed in detail the embryonic expression pattern and cis-regulatory modules of the Drosophila Na+-driven anion exchanger 1 (Ndae1) gene, involved in the regulation of pH homeostasis. We show that Ndae1 is expressed in a tight and complex spatial-temporal pattern. In particular, we report that this downstream effector gene is under the control of the canonical dorsal-ventral patterning cascade through dorsal, Toll, twist and snail at early embryogenesis. Moreover, we identify several cis-regulatory modules, some of which control discrete and non-overlapping aspects of endogenous gene expression throughout development.

A transcription factor network coordinates attraction, repulsion, and adhesion combinatorially to control motor axon pathway selection

Combinations of transcription factors (TFs) instruct precise wiring patterns in the developing nervous system; however, how these factors impinge on surface molecules that control guidance decisions is poorly understood. Using mRNA profiling, we identified the complement of membrane molecules regulated by the homeobox TF Even-skipped (Eve), the major determinant of dorsal motor neuron (dMN) identity in Drosophila. Combinatorial loss- and gain-of-function genetic analyses of Eve target genes indicate that the integrated actions of attractive, repulsive, and adhesive molecules direct eve-dependent dMN axon guidance. Furthermore, combined misexpression of Eve target genes is sufficient to partially restore CNS exit and can convert the guidance behavior of interneurons to that of dMNs. Finally, we show that a network of TFs, comprised of eve, zfh1, and grain, induces the expression of the Unc5 and Beaten-path guidance receptors and the Fasciclin 2 and Neuroglian adhesion molecules to guide individual dMN axons.

Blurring the boundaries: developmental and activity-dependent determinants of neural circuits

The human brain comprises approximately 100 billion neurons that express a diverse, and often subtype-specific, set of neurotransmitters and voltage-gated ion channels. Given this enormous complexity, a fundamental question is how is this achieved? The acquisition of neurotransmitter phenotype was viewed as being set by developmental programs 'hard wired' into the genome. By contrast, the expression of neuron-specific ion channels was considered to be highly dynamic (i.e., 'soft wired') and shaped largely by activity-dependent mechanisms. Recent evidence blurs this distinction by showing that neurotransmitter phenotype can be altered by activity and that neuron type-specific ion channel expression can be set, and perhaps limited by, developmental programs. Better understanding of these early regulatory mechanisms may offer new avenues to avert the behavioral changes that are characteristic of many mental illnesses.

Cell-type-specific profiling of gene expression and chromatin binding without cell isolation: assaying RNA Pol II occupancy in neural stem cells

Cell-type-specific transcriptional profiling often requires the isolation of specific cell types from complex tissues. We have developed “TaDa,” a technique that enables cell-specific profiling without cell isolation. TaDa permits genome-wide profiling of DNA- or chromatin-binding proteins without cell sorting, fixation, or affinity purification. The method is simple, sensitive, highly reproducible, and transferable to any model system. We show that TaDa can be used to identify transcribed genes in a cell-type-specific manner with considerable temporal precision, enabling the identification of differential gene expression between neuroblasts and the neuroepithelial cells from which they derive. We profile the genome-wide binding of RNA polymerase II in these adjacent, clonally related stem cells within intact Drosophila brains. Our data reveal expression of specific metabolic genes in neuroepithelial cells, but not in neuroblasts, and highlight gene regulatory networks that may pattern neural stem cell fates.

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TaDa is a method for cell-type-specific profiling of chromatin binding proteins

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TaDa does not require cell sorting, fixation, or affinity purification

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This is a highly sensitive and robust technique for transcriptional profiling

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We report differential RNA Pol II binding in clonally related stem cells

The LIM-homeodomain protein islet dictates motor neuron electrical properties by regulating K(+) channel expression

Neuron electrical properties are critical to function and generally subtype specific, as are patterns of axonal and dendritic projections. Specification of motoneuron morphology and axon pathfinding has been studied extensively, implicating the combinatorial action of Lim-homeodomain transcription factors. However, the specification of electrical properties is not understood. Here, we address the key issues of whether the same transcription factors that specify morphology also determine subtype specific electrical properties. We show that Drosophila motoneuron subtypes express different K⁺ currents and that these are regulated by the conserved Lim-homeodomain transcription factor Islet. Specifically, Islet is sufficient to repress a Shaker-mediated A-type K⁺ current, most likely due to a direct transcriptional effect. A reduction in Shaker increases the frequency of action potential firing. Our results demonstrate the deterministic role of Islet on the excitability patterns characteristic of motoneuron subtypes.

Segmental differences in firing properties and potassium currents in Drosophila larval motoneurons

Potassium currents play key roles in regulating motoneuron activity, including functional specializations that are important for locomotion. The thoracic and abdominal segments in the Drosophila larval ganglion have repeated arrays of motoneurons that innervate body-wall muscles used for peristaltic movements during crawling. Although abdominal motoneurons and their muscle targets have been studied in detail, owing, in part, to their involvement in locomotion, little is known about the cellular properties of motoneurons in thoracic segments. The goal of this study was to compare firing properties among thoracic motoneurons and the potassium currents that influence them. Whole-cell, patch-clamp recordings performed from motoneurons in two thoracic and one abdominal segment revealed both transient and sustained voltage-activated K(+) currents, each with Ca(++)-sensitive and Ca(++)-insensitive [A-type, voltage-dependent transient K(+) current (I(Av))] components. Segmental differences in the expression of voltage-activated K(+) currents were observed. In addition, we demonstrate that Shal contributes to I(Av) currents in the motoneurons of the first thoracic segment.

Increased persistent Na+ current contributes to seizure in the slamdance bang-sensitive Drosophila mutant

There is clinical need to extend the understanding of epilepsy and to find novel approaches to treat this condition. Bang-sensitive (bs) Drosophila mutants, which exhibit reduced thresholds for seizure, offer an attractive possibility to combine tractable genetics, electrophysiology, and high-throughput screening. However, despite these advantages, the precise electrophysiological aberrations that contribute to seizure have not been identified in any bs mutant. Because of this, the applicability of Drosophila as a preclinical model has not yet been established. In this study, we show that electroshock of bs slamdance (sda) larvae was sufficient to induce extended seizure-like episodes. Whole cell voltage-clamp recordings from identified motoneurons (termed aCC and RP2) showed synaptic currents that were greatly increased in both amplitude and duration. Current-clamp recordings indicated that these inputs produced longer-lived plateau depolarizations and increased action potential firing in these cells. An analysis of voltage-gated currents in these motoneurons, in both first and third instar larvae, revealed a consistently increased persistent Na(+) current (I(Nap)) and a reduced Ca(2+) current in first instar larvae, which appeared normal in older third instar larvae. That increased I(Nap) may contribute to seizure-like activity is indicated by the observation that feeding sda larvae the antiepileptic drug phenytoin, which was sufficient to reduce I(Nap), rescued both seizure-like episode duration and synaptic excitation of motoneurons. In contrast, feeding of either anemone toxin, a drug that preferentially increases I(Nap), or phenytoin to wild-type larvae was sufficient to induce a bs behavioral phenotype. Finally, we show that feeding of phenytoin to gravid sda females was sufficient to both reduce I(Nap) and synaptic currents and rescue the bs phenotype in their larval progeny, indicating that a heightened predisposition to seizure may arise as a consequence of abnormal embryonic neural development.

Developmental regulation of subtype-specific motor neuron excitability

At early embryonic stages, zebrafish spinal neuron subtypes can be distinguished and accessed for physiological studies. This provides the opportunity to determine electrophysiological properties of different spinal motor neuron subtypes. Such differences have the potential to then regulate, in a subtype-specific manner, activity-dependent developmental events such as axonal outgrowth and pathfinding. The zebrafish spinal cord contains a population of early born neurons. Our recent work has revealed that primary motor neuron (PMN) subtypes in the zebrafish spinal cord differ with respect to electrical properties during early important periods when PMNs extend axons to their specific targets. Here, we review recent findings regarding the development of electrical properties in PMN subtypes. Moreover, we consider the possibility that electrical activity in PMNs may play a cell nonautonomous role and thus influence the development of later developing motor neurons. Further, we discuss findings that support a role for a specific sodium channel isoform, Nav1.6, expressed by specific subtypes of spinal neurons in activity-dependent processes that impact axonal outgrowth and pathfinding.

Synaptic homeostasis is consolidated by the cell fate gene gooseberry, a Drosophila pax3/7 homolog

In a large-scale screening effort, we identified the gene gooseberry (gsb) as being necessary for synaptic homeostasis at the Drosophila neuromuscular junction. The gsb gene encodes a pair-rule transcription factor that participates in embryonic neuronal cell fate specification. Here, we define a new postembryonic role for gooseberry. We show that gsb becomes widely expressed in the postembryonic CNS, including within mature motoneurons. Loss of gsb does not alter neuromuscular growth, morphology, or the distribution of essential synaptic proteins. However, gsb function is required postembryonically for the sustained expression of synaptic homeostasis. In GluRIIA mutant animals, miniature EPSP (mEPSP) amplitudes are significantly decreased, and there is a compensatory homeostatic increase in presynaptic release that restores normal muscle excitation. Loss of gsb significantly impairs the homeostatic increase in presynaptic release in the GluRIIA mutant. Interestingly, gsb is not required for the rapid induction of synaptic homeostasis. Furthermore, gsb seems to be specifically involved in the mechanisms responsible for a homeostatic increase in presynaptic release, since it is not required for the homeostatic decrease in presynaptic release observed following an increase in mEPSP amplitude. Finally, Gsb has been shown to antagonize Wingless signaling during embryonic fate specification, and we present initial evidence that this activity is conserved during synaptic homeostasis. Thus, we have identified a gene (gsb) that distinguishes between rapid induction versus sustained expression of synaptic homeostasis and distinguishes between the mechanisms responsible for homeostatic increase versus decrease in synaptic vesicle release.

Zebrafish motor neuron subtypes differ electrically prior to axonal outgrowth

Different muscle targets and transcription factor expression patterns reveal the presence of motor neuron subtypes. However, it is not known whether these subtypes also differ with respect to electrical membrane properties. To address this question, we studied primary motor neurons (PMNs) in the spinal cord of zebrafish embryos. PMN genesis occurs during gastrulation and gives rise to a heterogeneous set of motor neurons that differ with respect to transcription factor expression, muscle targets, and soma location within each spinal cord segment. The unique subtype-specific soma locations and axonal trajectories of two PMNs-MiP (middle) and CaP (caudal)-allowed their identification in situ as early as 17 h postfertilization (hpf), prior to axon genesis. Between 17 and 48 hpf, CaPs and MiPs displayed subtype-specific electrical membrane properties. Voltage-dependent inward and outward currents differed significantly between MiPs and CaPs. Moreover, by 48 hpf, CaPs and MiPs displayed subtype-specific firing behaviors. Our results demonstrate that motor neurons that differ with respect to muscle targets and transcription factor expression acquire subtype-specific electrical membrane properties. Moreover, the differences are evident prior to axon genesis and persist to the latest stage studied, 2 days postfertilization.

Pumilio binds para mRNA and requires Nanos and Brat to regulate sodium current in Drosophila motoneurons

Homeostatic regulation of ionic currents is of paramount importance during periods of synaptic growth or remodeling. Our previous work has identified the translational repressor Pumilio (Pum) as a regulator of sodium current (I(Na)) and excitability in Drosophila motoneurons. In this current study, we show that Pum is able to bind directly the mRNA encoding the Drosophila voltage-gated sodium channel paralytic (para). We identify a putative binding site for Pum in the 3' end of the para open reading frame (ORF). Characterization of the mechanism of action of Pum, using whole-cell patch clamp and real-time reverse transcription-PCR, reveals that the full-length protein is required for translational repression of para mRNA. Additionally, the cofactor Nanos is essential for Pum-dependent para repression, whereas the requirement for Brain Tumor (Brat) is cell type specific. Thus, Pum-dependent regulation of I(Na) in motoneurons requires both Nanos and Brat, whereas regulation in other neuronal types seemingly requires only Nanos but not Brat. We also show that Pum is able to reduce the level of nanos mRNA and as such identify a potential negative-feedback mechanism to protect neurons from overactivity of Pum. Finally, we show coupling between I(Na) (para) and I(K) (Shal) such that Pum-mediated change in para results in a compensatory change in Shal. The identification of para as a direct target of Pum represents the first ion channel to be translationally regulated by this repressor and the location of the binding motif is the first example in an ORF rather than in the canonical 3'-untranslated region of target transcripts.

Global chromatin domain organization of the Drosophila genome

In eukaryotes, neighboring genes can be packaged together in specific chromatin structures that ensure their coordinated expression. Examples of such multi-gene chromatin domains are well-documented, but a global view of the chromatin organization of eukaryotic genomes is lacking. To systematically identify multi-gene chromatin domains, we constructed a compendium of genome-scale binding maps for a broad panel of chromatin-associated proteins in Drosophila melanogaster. Next, we computationally analyzed this compendium for evidence of multi-gene chromatin domains using a novel statistical segmentation algorithm. We find that at least 50% of all fly genes are organized into chromatin domains, which often consist of dozens of genes. The domains are characterized by various known and novel combinations of chromatin proteins. The genes in many of the domains are coregulated during development and tend to have similar biological functions. Furthermore, during evolution fewer chromosomal rearrangements occur inside chromatin domains than outside domains. Our results indicate that a substantial portion of the Drosophila genome is packaged into functionally coherent, multi-gene chromatin domains. This has broad mechanistic implications for gene regulation and genome evolution.

Genes are packaged into chromatin by a variety of specialized proteins. Many different types of chromatin exist, and each may regulate gene expression in different ways. It was previously observed that neighboring genes are sometimes packaged together into a single type of chromatin, which can facilitate their coordinated regulation. However, it has been unclear whether such multi-gene chromatin domains are exceptional, or may occur more frequently. Here, we report a systematic analysis of genome-wide binding patterns of a large set of chromatin components in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Strikingly, we find that at least 50% of all genes in this organism are packaged together with several of their neighboring genes into a single type of chromatin. Each chromatin domain can include dozens of genes and can be made up of different combinations of chromatin proteins. We show that genes in each domain often have similar functions and are coordinately expressed during development. Moreover, we find that many of these multi-gene domains have been kept intact during evolution, indicating that they are important functional units. In summary, multi-gene chromatin domains are much more common than previously thought, and they are likely to play important roles in the orchestration of gene expression.