Non-synonymous single-nucleotide variations of the human oxytocin receptor gene and autism spectrum disorders: a case-control study in a Japanese population and functional analysis

Oxytocin transported from the blood across the blood-brain barrier by receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) affects brain function related to social behavior

Oxytocin (OT) is a neuropeptide that primarily functions as a hormone controlling female reproductive processes. Since numerous recent studies have shown that single and repetitive administrations of OT increase trust, social interaction, and maternal behaviors in humans and animals, OT is considered a key molecule that regulates social memory and behavior. Furthermore, OT binds to receptors for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE), and it has been demonstrated that loss of RAGE in the brain vascular endothelial cells of mice fails to increase brain OT concentrations following peripheral OT administration. This leads to the hypothesis that RAGE is involved in the direct transport of OT, allowing it access to the brain by transporting it across the blood-brain barrier; however, this hypothesis is only based on limited evidence. Herein, we review the recent results related to this hypothesis, such as the mode of transport of OT in the blood circulation to the brain via different forms of RAGE, including membrane-bound full-length RAGE and soluble RAGE. We further review the modulation of brain function and social behavior, which seem to be mediated by RAGE-dependent OT. Overall, this review mostly confirms that RAGE enables the recruitment of circulating OT to the brain, thereby influencing social behavior. The requirement for further studies considering the physiological aspects of RAGE is also discussed.

Single nucleotide variations encoding missense mutations in G protein-coupled receptors may contribute to autism

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition with a range of symptoms that vary in intensity and severity from person to person. Genetic sequencing has identified thousands of genes containing mutations in autistic individuals, which may contribute to the development of autistic symptoms. Several of these genes encode G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which are cell surface expressed proteins that transduce extracellular messages to the intracellular space. Mutations in GPCRs can impact their function, resulting in aberrant signalling within cells and across neurotransmitter systems in the brain. This review summarises the current knowledge on autism-associated single nucleotide variations encoding missense mutations in GPCRs and the impact of these genetic mutations on GPCR function. For some autism-associated mutations, changes in GPCR expression levels, ligand affinity, potency and efficacy have been observed. However, for many the functional consequences remain unknown. Thus, further work to characterise the functional impacts of the genetically identified mutations is required. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue Therapeutic Targeting of G Protein-Coupled Receptors: hot topics from the Australasian Society of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacologists and Toxicologists 2021 Virtual Annual Scientific Meeting. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v181.14/issuetoc.

Robust GRK2/3/6-dependent desensitization of oxytocin receptor in neurons

Oxytocin plays critical roles in the brain as a neuromodulator, regulating social and other affective behavior. However, the regulatory mechanisms controlling oxytocin receptor (OXTR) signaling in neurons remain unexplored. In this study, we have identified robust and rapid-onset desensitization of OXTR response in multiple regions of the mouse brain. Both cell autonomous spiking response and presynaptic activation undergo similar agonist-induced desensitization. G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRK) GRK2, GRK3, and GRK6 are recruited to the activated OXTR in neurons, followed by recruitment of β-arrestin-1 and -2. Neuronal OXTR desensitization was impaired by suppression of GRK2/3/6 kinase activity but remained unaltered with double knockout of β-arrestin-1 and -2. Additionally, we observed robust agonist-induced internalization of neuronal OXTR and its Rab5-dependent recruitment to early endosomes, which was impaired by GRK2/3/6 inhibition. This work defines distinctive aspects of the mechanisms governing OXTR desensitization and internalization in neurons compared to prior studies in heterologous cells.

Oxytocin: An Old Hormone, A Novel Psychotropic Drug And Possible Use In Treating Psychiatric Disorders

BACKGROUND

Oxytocin is a nonapeptide synthesized in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus. Historically, this molecule has been involved as a key factor in the formation of infant attachment, maternal behavior and pair bonding and, more generally, in linking social signals with cognition, behaviors and reward. In the last decades, the whole oxytocin system has gained a growing interest as it was proposed to be implicated in etiopathogenesis of several neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric disorders.

METHODS

With the main goal of an in-depth understanding of the oxytocin role in the regulation of different functions and complex behaviors as well as its intriguing implications in different neuropsychiatric disorders, we performed a critical review of the current state of art. We carried out this work through PubMed database up to June 2021 with the search terms: 1) "oxytocin and neuropsychiatric disorders"; 2) "oxytocin and neurodevelopmental disorders"; 3) "oxytocin and anorexia"; 4) "oxytocin and eating disorders"; 5) "oxytocin and obsessive-compulsive disorder"; 6) "oxytocin and schizophrenia"; 7) "oxytocin and depression"; 8) "oxytocin and bipolar disorder"; 9) "oxytocin and psychosis"; 10) "oxytocin and anxiety"; 11) "oxytocin and personality disorder"; 12) "oxytocin and PTSD".

RESULTS

Biological, genetic, and epigenetic studies highlighted quality and quantity modifications in the expression of oxytocin peptide or in oxytocin receptor isoforms. These alterations would seem to be correlated with a higher risk of presenting several neuropsychiatric disorders belonging to different psychopathological spectra. Collaterally, the exogenous oxytocin administration has shown to ameliorate many neuropsychiatric clinical conditions.

CONCLUSION

Finally, we briefly analyzed the potential pharmacological use of oxytocin in patient with severe symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection due to its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and immunoregulatory properties.

Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) polymorphisms and social, emotional and behavioral functioning in children and adolescents: a systematic narrative review

This study systematically reviewed available evidence regarding associations between polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene and socio-emotional and behavioral functioning in children and adolescents. The search yielded 69 articles, which were grouped into nine categories: depression, anxiety, and internalizing symptoms, alcohol abuse, borderline personality disorder, conduct disorder symptoms or diagnosis, autism spectrum disorder, Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, early childhood attachment and behavior, pro-social skills, and resilience. Direct and/or gene x environment interactions were identified in over half of the studies. ASD and conduct disorder (including callous unemotional traits) were the diagnoses that were most studied and for which there was the strongest evidence of direct links with OXTR polymorphisms. In most studies identifying gene x environment interactions, the candidate OXTR polymorphism was rs53576. Results suggest that OXTR polymorphisms are associated with social, emotional or behavioural functioning in children and adolescents. The mixed findings do, however, highlight the need for further research.

Naturally Occurring Genetic Variants in the Oxytocin Receptor Alter Receptor Signaling Profiles

The hormone oxytocin is commonly administered during childbirth to initiate and strengthen uterine contractions and prevent postpartum hemorrhage. However, patients have wide variation in the oxytocin dose required for a clinical response. To begin to uncover the mechanisms underlying this variability, we screened the 11 most prevalent missense genetic variants in the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene. We found that five variants, V45L, P108A, L206V, V281M, and E339K, significantly altered oxytocin-induced Ca²⁺ signaling or β-arrestin recruitment and proceeded to assess the effects of these variants on OXTR trafficking to the cell membrane, desensitization, and internalization. The variants P108A and L206V increased OXTR localization to the cell membrane, whereas V281M and E339K caused OXTR to be retained inside the cell. We examined how the variants altered the balance between OXTR activation and desensitization, which is critical for appropriate oxytocin dosing. The E339K variant impaired OXTR activation, internalization, and desensitization to roughly equal extents. In contrast, V281M decreased OXTR activation but had no effect on internalization and desensitization. V45L and P108A did not alter OXTR activation but did impair β-arrestin recruitment, internalization, and desensitization. Molecular dynamics simulations predicted that V45L and P108A prevent extension of the first intracellular loop of OXTR, thus inhibiting β-arrestin binding. Overall, our data suggest mechanisms by which OXTR genetic variants could alter clinical response to oxytocin.

Oxytocin system dysfunction in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: Alterations of blood oxytocin levels and effect of a genetic variant of OXTR

Treatment-resistant schizophrenia (TRS) has a quite complex pathophysiology that includes not only severe positive symptoms but also other symptom domains. Much attention has been devoted to the overlapping psychological and biological profiles of schizophrenia and autistic spectrum disorder (ASD). We compared TRS patients (n = 30) with schizophrenia patients in remission (RemSZ, n = 28) and ASD patients (n = 28), focusing on general cognitive and social cognitive impairment and oxytocin system dysfunction. Our analyses revealed that there was no difference in oxytocin concentration among the three groups. The TRS patients' oxytocin blood concentrations were positively correlated with their processing speed and theory-of-mind scores, whereas the RemSZ and ASD groups had no significant relation with any measures. Rs53576, a single nucleotide polymorphism on the oxytocin receptor gene, affected social cognition abilities in the schizophrenia group. Although the overall findings are preliminary, they indicate that oxytocin system dysfunction could be involved in the serious cognitive deficits in TRS patients. Further, these results suggest that patients with TRS might have early neurodevelopmental abnormalities based on their shared biological features with ASD patients.

Functional Polymorphisms in Oxytocin and Dopamine Pathway Genes and the Development of Dispositional Compassion Over Time: The Young Finns Study

Background: We define compassion as an enduring disposition that centers upon empathetic concern for another person's suffering and the motivation to act to alleviate it. The contribution of specific candidate genes to the development of dispositional compassion for others is currently unknown. We examine candidate genes in the oxytocin and dopamine signaling pathways.

Methods: In a 32-year follow-up of the Young Finns Study (N = 2,130, 44.0% men), we examined with multiple indicators latent growth curve modeling the molecular genetic underpinnings of dispositional compassion for others across the life span. We selected five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) whose functions are known in humans: rs2268498 (OXTR), rs3796863 (CD38) (related to lower oxytocin levels), rs1800497 (ANKK1/DRD2), rs4680 (COMT), and rs1611115 (DBH) (related to higher dopamine levels). Compassion was measured with Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory on three repeated observations spanning 15 years (1997–2012). Differences between gender were tested.

Results: We did not find an effect of the five SNPs in oxytocin and dopamine pathway genes on the initial levels of dispositional compassion for others. Individuals who carry one or two copies of the T-allele of DBH rs1611115, however, tend to increase faster in compassion over time than those homozygotes for the C-allele, b = 0.063 (SE = 0.027; p = 0.018). This effect was largely driven by male participants, 0.206 (SE = 0.046; p < 0.001), and was not significant in female participants when analyzed separately.

Conclusions: Men who are known to have, on average, lower compassion than women seem to reduce this difference over time if they carry the T-allele of DBH rs1611115. The direction of the association indicates that dopamine signaling activity rather than overall dopamine levels might drive the development of compassion.

Oxytocin Signaling Pathway: From Cell Biology to Clinical Implications

BACKGROUND

In addition to the well-known role played in lactation and parturition, Oxytocin (OT) and OT receptor (OTR) are involved in many other aspects such as the control of maternal and social behavior, the regulation of the growth of the neocortex, the maintenance of blood supply to the cortex, the stimulation of limbic olfactory area to mother-infant recognition bond, and the modulation of the autonomic nervous system via the vagal pathway. Moreover, OT and OTR show antiinflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-pain, anti-diabetic, anti-dyslipidemic and anti-atherogenic effects.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this narrative review is to summarize the main data coming from the literature dealing with the role of OT and OTR in physiology and pathologic conditions focusing on the most relevant aspects.

METHODS

Appropriate keywords and MeSH terms were identified and searched in Pubmed. Finally, references of original articles and reviews were examined.

RESULTS

We report the most significant and updated data on the role played by OT and OTR in physiology and different clinical contexts.

CONCLUSION

Emerging evidence indicates the involvement of OT system in several pathophysiological mechanisms influencing brain anatomy, cognition, language, sense of safety and trust and maternal behavior, with the possible use of exogenous administered OT in the treatment of specific neuropsychiatric conditions. Furthermore, it modulates pancreatic β-cell responsiveness and lipid metabolism leading to possible therapeutic use in diabetic and dyslipidemic patients and for limiting and even reversing atherosclerotic lesions.

Inositol 1,4,5-Trisphosphate Receptors in Human Disease: A Comprehensive Update

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (ITPRs) are intracellular calcium release channels located on the endoplasmic reticulum of virtually every cell. Herein, we are reporting an updated systematic summary of the current knowledge on the functional role of ITPRs in human disorders. Specifically, we are describing the involvement of its loss-of-function and gain-of-function mutations in the pathogenesis of neurological, immunological, cardiovascular, and neoplastic human disease. Recent results from genome-wide association studies are also discussed.

One Single Nucleotide Polymorphism of the TRPM2 Channel Gene Identified as a Risk Factor in Bipolar Disorder Associates with Autism Spectrum Disorder in a Japanese Population

The transient receptor potential melastatin 2 (TRPM2) is a non-specific cation channel, resulting in Ca²⁺ influx at warm temperatures from 34 °C to 47 °C, thus including the body temperature range in mammals. TRPM2 channels are activated by β-NAD⁺, ADP-ribose (ADPR), cyclic ADPR, and 2′-deoxyadenosine 5′-diphosphoribose. It has been shown that TRPM2 cation channels and CD38, a type II or type III transmembrane protein with ADP-ribosyl cyclase activity, simultaneously play a role in heat-sensitive and NAD⁺ metabolite-dependent intracellular free Ca²⁺ concentration increases in hypothalamic oxytocinergic neurons. Subsequently, oxytocin (OT) is released to the brain. Impairment of OT release may induce social amnesia, one of the core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The risk of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and variants of TRPM2 have been reported in bipolar disorder, but not in ASD. Therefore, it is reasonable to examine whether SNPs or haplotypes in TRPM2 are associated with ASD. Here, we report a case-control study with 147 ASD patients and 150 unselected volunteers at Kanazawa University Hospital in Japan. The sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction method together with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy was applied. Of 14 SNPs examined, one SNP (rs933151) displayed a significant p-value (OR = 0.1798, 95% CI = 0.039, 0.83; Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.0196). The present research data suggest that rs93315, identified as a risk factor for bipolar disorder, is a possible association factor for ASD.

Development of a Highly Potent Analogue and a Long-Acting Analogue of Oxytocin for the Treatment of Social Impairment-Like Behaviors

The nonapeptide hormone oxytocin (OT) has pivotal brain roles in social recognition and interaction and is thus a promising therapeutic drug for social deficits. Because of its peptide structure, however, OT is rapidly eliminated from the bloodstream, which decreases its potential therapeutic effects in the brain. We found that newly synthesized OT analogues in which the Pro⁷ of OT was replaced with N-( p-fluorobenzyl)glycine (2) or N-(3-hydroxypropyl)glycine (5) exhibited highly potent binding affinities for OT receptors and Ca²⁺ mobilization effects by selectively activating OT receptors over vasopressin receptors in HEK cells, where 2 was identified as a superagonist ( E_Max = 131%) for OT receptors. Furthermore, the two OT analogues had a remarkably long-acting effect, up to 16-24 h, on recovery from impaired social behaviors in two strains of CD38 knockout mice that exhibit autism spectrum disorder-like social behavioral deficits, whereas the effect of OT itself rapidly diminished.

Social Interaction Improved by Oxytocin in the Subclass of Autism with Comorbid Intellectual Disabilities

Approximately half of all autism spectrum disorder (ASD) individuals suffer from comorbid intellectual disabilities. Furthermore, the prevalence of epilepsy has been estimated to be 46% of patients with low intelligence quotient. It is important to investigate the therapeutic benefits and adverse effects of any recently developed drugs for this proportion of individuals with the so-called Kanner type of ASD. Therefore, we investigated the therapeutic and/or adverse effects of intranasal oxytocin (OT) administration, especially in adolescents and adults with ASD and comorbid intellectual disability and epilepsy, with regard to core symptoms of social deficits. We have already reported three randomized placebo-controlled trials (RCTs). However, we revisit results in our pilot studies from the view of comorbidity. Most of the intellectually disabled participants were found to be feasible participants of the RCT. We observed significantly more events regarded as reciprocal social interaction in the OT group compared with the placebo group. In the trial, no or little differences in adverse events were found between the OT and placebo arms, as found in some other reports. However, seizures were induced in three participants with medical history of epilepsy during or after OT treatment. In conclusion, we stress that behavioral changes in ASD patients with intellectual disabilities could be recognized not by the conventional measurements of ASD symptoms but by detailed evaluation of social interactions arising in daily-life situations.

No Association between Polymorphisms of Vitamin D and Oxytocin Receptor Genes and Autistic Spectrum Disorder in a Sample of Turkish Children

Objective

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairment in social skills and communication with repetitive behaviors. Etiology is still unclear although it is thought to develop with interaction of genes and environmental factors. Oxytocin has extensive effects on intrauterine brain development. Vitamin D, affects neural development and differentiation and contributes to the regulation of around 900 genes including oxytocin receptor gene. In the present study, the contribution of D vitamin receptor and oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms in the development of ASD in Turkish community was investigated. To our knowledge, this is the first study examining these two associated genes together in the literature.

Methods

Eighty-five patients diagnosed with ASD according to DSM-5 who were referred to outpatient clinics of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry of Başkent University and Mersin University and 52 healthy, age and gender-matched controls were included in the present study. Vitamin D receptor gene rs731236 (Taq1), rs2228570 (Fok1), rs1544410 (Bsm1), rs7975232 (Apa1) polymorphisms and oxytocin receptor gene rs1042778 and rs2268493 polymorphisms were investigated using real time polymerase chain reaction method.

Results

No significant difference between groups in terms of distribution of genotype and alleles in each of polymorphisms for these genes could be found.

Conclusion

Knowledge of genes and polymorphisms associated with the development of ASD may be beneficial for early diagnosis and future treatment. Further studies with larger populations are required to demonstrate molecular pathways which may play part in the development of ASD in Turkey.

Genetics and epigenetics of autism: A Review

Autism is a developmental disorder that starts before age 3 years, and children with autism have impairment in both social interaction and communication, and have restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. There is a strong heritable component of autism and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as studies have shown that parents who have a child with ASD have a 2-18% chance of having a second child with ASD. The prevalence of autism and ASD have been increasing during the last 3 decades and much research has been carried out to understand the etiology, so as to develop novel preventive and treatment strategies. This review aims at summarizing the latest research studies related to autism and ASD, focusing not only on the genetics but also some epigenetic findings of autism/ASD. Some promising areas of research using transgenic/knockout animals and some ideas related to potential novel treatment and prevention strategies will be discussed.

Genes Related to Oxytocin and Arginine-Vasopressin Pathways: Associations with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a highly heritable neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impaired social interactions, communication deficits, and repetitive behavior. Although the mechanisms underlying its etiology and manifestations are poorly understood, several lines of evidence from rodent and human studies suggest involvement of the evolutionarily highly-conserved oxytocin (OXT) and arginine-vasopressin (AVP), as these neuropeptides modulate various aspects of mammalian social behavior. As far as we know, there is no comprehensive review of the roles of the OXT and AVP systems in the development of ASD from the genetic aspect. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding associations between ASD and single-nucleotide variants of the human OXT-AVP pathway genes OXT, AVP, AVP receptor 1a (AVPR1a), OXT receptor (OXTR), the oxytocinase/vasopressinase (LNPEP), and ADP-ribosyl cyclase (CD38).

Structure-specific effects of lipidated oxytocin analogs on intracellular calcium levels, parental behavior, and oxytocin concentrations in the plasma and cerebrospinal fluid in mice

Oxytocin (OT) is a neuroendocrine nonapeptide that plays an important role in social memory and behavior. Nasal administration of OT has been shown to improve trust in healthy humans and social interaction in autistic subjects in some clinical trials. As a central nervous system (CNS) drug, however, OT has two unfavorable characteristics: OT is short‐acting and shows poor permeability across the blood–brain barrier, because it exists in charged form in the plasma and has short half‐life. To overcome these drawbacks, an analog with long‐lasting effects is required. We previously synthesized the analog, lipo‐oxytocin‐1 (LOT‐1), in which two palmitoyl groups are conjugated to the cysteine and tyrosine residues. In this study, we synthesized and evaluated the analogs lipo‐oxytocin‐2 (LOT‐2) and lipo‐oxytocin‐3 (LOT‐3), which feature the conjugation of one palmitoyl group at the cysteine and tyrosine residues, respectively. In human embryonic kidney‐293 cells overexpressing human OT receptors, these three LOTs demonstrated comparably weak effects on the elevation of intracellular free calcium concentrations after OT receptor activation, compared to the effects of OT. The three LOTs and OT exhibited different time‐dependent effects on recovery from impaired pup retrieval behavior in sires of CD38‐knockout mice. Sires treated with LOT‐1 showed the strongest effect, whereas others had no or little effects at 24 h after injection. These results indicated that LOTs have structure‐specific agonistic effects, and suggest that lipidation of OT might have therapeutic benefits for social impairment.

Molecular Basis of Oxytocin Receptor Signalling in the Brain: What We Know and What We Need to Know

Oxytocin (OT), a hypothalamic neuropeptide involved in regulating the social behaviour of all vertebrates, has been proposed as a treatment for a number of neuropsychiatric disorders characterised by deficits in the social domain. Over the last few decades, advances focused on understanding the social effects of OT and its role in physiological conditions and brain diseases, but much less has been done to clarify the molecular cascade of events involved in mediating such effects and in particular the cellular and molecular pharmacology of OT and its target receptor (OTR) in neuronal and glial cells.The entity and persistence of OT activity in the brain is closely related to the expression and regulation of the OTR expressed on the cell surface, which transmits the signal intracellularly and permits OT to affect cell function. Understanding the various signalling mechanisms mediating OTR-induced cell responses is crucial to determine the different responses in different cells and brain regions, and the success of OT and OT-derived analogues in the treatment of neurodevelopmental and psychiatric diseases depends on how well we can control such responses. In this review, we will consider the most important aspects of OT/OTR signalling by focusing on the molecular events involved in OT binding and coupling, on the main signalling pathways activated by the OTR in neuronal cells and on intracellular and plasma membrane OTR trafficking, all of which contribute to the quantitative and qualitative features of OT responses in the brain.

The Inositol Trisphosphate/Calcium Signaling Pathway in Health and Disease

Many cellular functions are regulated by calcium (Ca2+) signals that are generated by different signaling pathways. One of these is the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate/calcium (InsP3/Ca2+) signaling pathway that operates through either primary or modulatory mechanisms. In its primary role, it generates the Ca2+ that acts directly to control processes such as metabolism, secretion, fertilization, proliferation, and smooth muscle contraction. Its modulatory role occurs in excitable cells where it modulates the primary Ca2+ signal generated by the entry of Ca2+ through voltage-operated channels that releases Ca2+ from ryanodine receptors (RYRs) on the internal stores. In carrying out this modulatory role, the InsP3/Ca2+ signaling pathway induces subtle changes in the generation and function of the voltage-dependent primary Ca2+ signal. Changes in the nature of both the primary and modulatory roles of InsP3/Ca2+ signaling are a contributory factor responsible for the onset of a large number human diseases.

Endosomal system genetics and autism spectrum disorders: A literature review

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of debilitating neurodevelopmental disorders thought to have genetic etiology, due to their high heritability. The endosomal system has become increasingly implicated in ASD pathophysiology. In an attempt to summarize the association between endosomal system genes and ASDs we performed a systematic review of the literature. We searched PubMed for relevant articles. Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) gene database was used to exclude articles regarding genes with less than minimal evidence for association with ASDs. Our search retained 55 articles reviewed in two categories: genes that regulate and genes that are regulated by the endosomal system. Our review shows that the endosomal system is a novel pathway implicated in ASDs as well as other neuropsychiatric disorders. It plays a central role in aspects of cellular physiology on which neurons and glial cells are particularly reliant, due to their unique metabolic and functional demands. The system shows potential for biomarkers and pharmacological intervention and thus more research into this pathway is warranted.

A Study of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms of the SLC19A1/RFC1 Gene in Subjects with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a group of neurodevelopmental disorders with complex genetic etiology. Recent studies have indicated that children with ASD may have altered folate or methionine metabolism, suggesting that the folate–methionine cycle may play a key role in the etiology of ASD. SLC19A1, also referred to as reduced folate carrier 1 (RFC1), is a member of the solute carrier group of transporters and is one of the key enzymes in the folate metabolism pathway. Findings from multiple genomic screens suggest the presence of an autism susceptibility locus on chromosome 21q22.3, which includes SLC19A1. Therefore, we performed a case-control study in a Japanese population. In this study, DNA samples obtained from 147 ASD patients at the Kanazawa University Hospital in Japan and 150 unrelated healthy Japanese volunteers were examined by the sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction method pooled with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. p < 0.05 was considered to represent a statistically significant outcome. Of 13 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) examined, a significant p-value was obtained for AA genotype of one SNP (rs1023159, OR = 0.39, 95% CI = 0.16–0.91, p = 0.0394; Fisher’s exact test). Despite some conflicting results, our findings supported a role for the polymorphism rs1023159 of the SLC19A1 gene, alone or in combination, as a risk factor for ASD. However, the findings were not consistent after multiple testing corrections. In conclusion, although our results supported a role of the SLC19A1 gene in the etiology of ASD, it was not a significant risk factor for the ASD samples analyzed in this study.

Generation of Oxtr cDNA(HA)-Ires-Cre Mice for Gene Expression in an Oxytocin Receptor Specific Manner

The neurohypophysial hormone oxytocin (OXT) and its receptor (OXTR) have critical roles in the regulation of pro-social behaviors, including social recognition, pair bonding, parental behavior, and stress-related responses. Supporting this hypothesis, a portion of patients suffering from autism spectrum disorder have mutations, such as single nucleotide polymorphisms, or epigenetic modifications in their OXTR gene. We previously reported that OXTR-deficient mice exhibit pervasive social deficits, indicating the critical role of OXTR in social behaviors. In the present study, we generated Oxtr cDNA(HA)-Ires-Cre knock-in mice, expressing both OXTR and Cre recombinase under the control of the endogenous Oxtr promoter. Knock-in cassette of Oxtr cDNA(HA)-Ires-Cre consisted of Oxtr cDNA tagged with the hemagglutinin epitope at the 3' end (Oxtr cDNA(HA)), internal ribosomal entry site (Ires), and Cre. Cre was expressed in the uterus, mammary gland, kidney, and brain of Oxtr cDNA(HA)-Ires-Cre knock-in mice. Furthermore, the distribution of Cre in the brain was similar to that observed in Oxtr-Venus fluorescent protein expressing mice (Oxtr-Venus), another animal model previously generated by our group. Social behavior of Oxtr cDNA(HA)-Ires-Cre knock-in mice was similar to that of wild-type animals. We demonstrated that this construct is expressed in OXTR-expressing neurons specifically after an infection with the recombinant adeno-associated virus carrying the flip-excision switch vector. Using this system, we showed the transport of the wheat-germ agglutinin tracing molecule from the OXTR-expressing neurons to the innervated neurons in knock-in mice. This study might contribute to the monosynaptic analysis of neuronal circuits and to the optogenetic analysis of neurons expressing OXTR.

Oxytocin Pathway Genes: Evolutionary Ancient System Impacting on Human Affiliation, Sociality, and Psychopathology

Oxytocin (OT), a nonapeptide signaling molecule originating from an ancestral peptide, appears in different variants across all vertebrate and several invertebrate species. Throughout animal evolution, neuropeptidergic signaling has been adapted by organisms for regulating response to rapidly changing environments. The family of OT-like molecules affects both peripheral tissues implicated in reproduction, homeostasis, and energy balance, as well as neuromodulation of social behavior, stress regulation, and associative learning in species ranging from nematodes to humans. After describing the OT-signaling pathway, we review research on the three genes most extensively studied in humans: the OT receptor (OXTR), the structural gene for OT (OXT/neurophysin-I), and CD38. Consistent with the notion that sociality should be studied from the perspective of social life at the species level, we address human social functions in relation to OT-pathway genes, including parenting, empathy, and using social relationships to manage stress. We then describe associations between OT-pathway genes with psychopathologies involving social dysfunctions such as autism, depression, or schizophrenia. Human research particularly underscored the involvement of two OXTR single nucleotide polymorphisms (rs53576, rs2254298) with fewer studies focusing on other OXTR (rs7632287, rs1042778, rs2268494, rs2268490), OXT (rs2740210, rs4813627, rs4813625), and CD38 (rs3796863, rs6449197) single nucleotide polymorphisms. Overall, studies provide evidence for the involvement of OT-pathway genes in human social functions but also suggest that factors such as gender, culture, and early environment often confound attempts to replicate first findings. We conclude by discussing epigenetics, conceptual implications within an evolutionary perspective, and future directions, especially the need to refine phenotypes, carefully characterize early environments, and integrate observations of social behavior across ecological contexts.

Novel rare variations of the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene in autism spectrum disorder individuals

The oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene has been implicated as a risk gene for autism spectrum disorder (ASD)—a neurodevelopmental disorder with essential features of impairments in social communication and reciprocal interaction. The genetic associations between common variations in OXTR and ASD have been reported in multiple ethnic populations. However, little is known about the distribution of rare variations within OXTR in ASD patients. In this study, we resequenced the full length of OXTR in 105 ASD individuals using an approach that combined the power of next-generation sequencing technology, long-range PCR and DNA pooling. We demonstrated that rare variants with minor allele frequency as low as 0.05% could be reliably detected by our method. We identified 28 novel variants including potential functional variants in the intron region and one rare missense variant (R150S). We subsequently performed Sanger sequencing and validated five novel variants located in previously suggested candidate regions in ASD individuals. Further sequencing of 312 healthy subjects showed that the burden of rare variants is significantly higher in ASDs compared with healthy individuals. Our results support that the rare variation in OXTR gene might be involved in ASD.

Association Study between the CD157/BST1 Gene and Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Japanese Population

CD157, also referred to as bone marrow stromal cell antigen-1 (BST-1), is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored molecule that promotes pre-B-cell growth. Previous studies have reported associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the CD157/BST1 gene with Parkinson’s disease. In an attempt to determine whether SNPs or haplotypes in the CD157/BST1 are associated with other brain disorders, we performed a case-control study including 147 autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients at Kanazawa University Hospital in Japan and 150 unselected Japanese volunteers by the sequence-specific primer-polymerase chain reaction method combined with fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Of 93 SNPs examined, two SNPs showed significantly higher allele frequencies in cases with ASDs than in unaffected controls (rs4301112, OR = 6.4, 95% CI = 1.9 to 22, p = 0.0007; and rs28532698, OR = 6.2, 95% CI = 1.8 to 21, p = 0.0012; Fisher’s exact test; p < 0.002 was considered significant after multiple testing correction). In addition, CT genotype in rs10001565 was more frequently observed in the ASD group than in the control group (OR = 15, 95% CI = 2.0 to 117, p = 0.0007; Fisher’s exact test). The present data indicate that genetic variation of the CD157/BST1 gene might confer susceptibility to ASDs.

Resequencing and association analysis of OXTR with autism spectrum disorder in a Japanese population

AIMS

The oxytocin receptor (OXTR) is implicated in the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A recent study found a rare non-synonymous OXTR gene variation, rs35062132 (R376G), associated with ASD in a Japanese population. In order to investigate the association between rare non-synonymous OXTR variations and ASD, we resequenced OXTR and performed association analysis with ASD in a Japanese population.

METHODS

We resequenced the OXTR coding region in 213 ASD patients. Rare non-synonymous OXTR variations detected by resequencing were genotyped in 213 patients and 667 controls.

RESULTS

We detected three rare non-synonymous variations: rs35062132 (R376G/C), rs151257822 (G334D), and g.8809426G>T (R150S). However, there was no significant association between these rare non-synonymous variations and ASD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our present study does not support the contribution of rare non-synonymous OXTR variations to ASD susceptibility in the Japanese population.

Lipo-oxytocin-1, a Novel Oxytocin Analog Conjugated with Two Palmitoyl Groups, Has Long-Lasting Effects on Anxiety-Related Behavior and Social Avoidance in CD157 Knockout Mice

Oxytocin (OT) is a nonapeptide hormone that is secreted into the brain and blood circulation. OT has not only classical neurohormonal roles in uterine contraction and milk ejection during the reproductive phase in females, but has also been shown to have new pivotal neuromodulatory roles in social recognition and interaction in both genders. A single administration of OT through nasal spray increases mutual recognition and trust in healthy subjects and psychiatric patients, suggesting that OT is a potential therapeutic drug for autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia, and some other psychiatric disorders. Although the mechanism is not well understood, it is likely that OT can be transported into the brain where it activates OT receptors to exert its function in the brain. However, the amount transported into the brain may be low. To ensure equivalent effects, an OT analog with long-lasting and effective blood-brain barrier penetration properties would be beneficial for use as a therapeutic drug. Here, we designed and synthesized a new oxytocin analog, lipo-oxytocin-1 (LOT-1), in which two palmitoyl groups are conjugated at the amino group of the cysteine9 residue and the phenolic hydroxyl group of the tyrosine8 residue of the OT molecule. To determine whether LOT-1 actually has an effect on the central nervous system, we examined its effects in a CD157 knockout model mouse of the non-motor psychiatric symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Similar to OT, this analog rescued anxiety-like behavior and social avoidance in the open field test with the social target in a central arena 30 min after intraperitoneal injection in CD157 knockout mice. When examined 24 h after injection, the mice treated with LOT-1 displayed more recovery than those given OT. The results suggest that LOT-1 has a functional advantage in recovery of social behavioral impairment, such as those caused by neurodegenerative diseases, autism spectrum disorders, and schizophrenia.

Vitamin D hormone regulates serotonin synthesis. Part 1: relevance for autism

Serotonin and vitamin D have been proposed to play a role in autism; however, no causal mechanism has been established. Here, we present evidence that vitamin D hormone (calcitriol) activates the transcription of the serotonin-synthesizing gene tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2) in the brain at a vitamin D response element (VDRE) and represses the transcription of TPH1 in tissues outside the blood-brain barrier at a distinct VDRE. The proposed mechanism explains 4 major characteristics associated with autism: the low concentrations of serotonin in the brain and its elevated concentrations in tissues outside the blood-brain barrier; the low concentrations of the vitamin D hormone precursor 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D3]; the high male prevalence of autism; and the presence of maternal antibodies against fetal brain tissue. Two peptide hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin, are also associated with autism and genes encoding the oxytocin-neurophysin I preproprotein, the oxytocin receptor, and the arginine vasopressin receptor contain VDREs for activation. Supplementation with vitamin D and tryptophan is a practical and affordable solution to help prevent autism and possibly ameliorate some symptoms of the disorder.

Intranasal oxytocin in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders: a review of literature and early safety and efficacy data in youth

BACKGROUND

There is a paucity of treatments targeting core symptom domains in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Several animal models and research in typically developing volunteers suggests that manipulation of the oxytocin system may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of social deficits. We review the literature for oxytocin and ASD and report on early dosing, safety and efficacy data of multi-dose oxytocin on aspects of social cognition/function, as well as repetitive behaviors and co-occurring anxiety within ASD.

METHODS

Fifteen children and adolescents with verbal IQs≥70 were diagnosed with ASD using the ADOS and the ADI-R. They participated in a modified maximum tolerated dose study of intranasal oxytocin (Syntocinon). Data were modeled using repeated measures regression analysis controlling for week, dose, age, and sex.

RESULTS

Among 4 doses tested, the highest dose evaluated, 0.4 IU/kg/dose, was found to be well tolerated. No serious or severe adverse events were reported and adverse events reported/observed were mild to moderate. Over 12 weeks of treatment, several measures of social cognition/function, repetitive behaviors and anxiety showed sensitivity to change with some measures suggesting maintenance of effect 3 months past discontinuation of intranasal oxytocin.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study suggests that daily administration of intranasal oxytocin at 0.4 IU/kg/dose in children and adolescents with ASD is safe and has therapeutic potential. Larger studies are warranted. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Oxytocin and Social Behav.

Epigenetic findings in autism: new perspectives for therapy

Autism and autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are complex neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by dysfunctions in social interactions, communications, restricted interests, and repetitive stereotypic behaviors. Despite extensive genetic and biological research, significant controversy surrounds our understanding of the specific mechanisms of their pathogenesis. However, accumulating evidence points to the involvement of epigenetic modifications as foundational in creating ASD pathophysiology. Epigenetic modifications or the alteration of DNA transcription via variations in DNA methylation and histone modifications but without alterations in the DNA sequence, affect gene regulation. These alterations in gene expression, obtained through DNA methylation and/or histone modifications, result from transcriptional regulatory influences of environmental factors, such as nutritional deficiencies, various toxicants, immunological effects, and pharmaceuticals. As such these effects are epigenetic regulators which determine the final biochemistry and physiology of the individual. In contrast to psychopharmacological interventions, bettering our understanding of how these gene-environmental interactions create autistic symptoms should facilitate the development of therapeutic targeting of gene expression for ASD biomedical care.