Bench to bedside review: Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal, past present and future

Advancing extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal technology: bridging basic science and clinical practice

Recently, advancements in extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO 2 R) technology have markedly enhanced its clinical applicability and efficacy for managing severe respiratory conditions. This review highlights critical innovations in ECCO 2 R, such as advanced catheter technologies, active mixing methods, and biochemical enhancements, which have substantially improved gas exchange efficiency and broadened the scope of ECCO 2 R applications. Integrating ECCO 2 R into acute and chronic respiratory care has led to a shift toward more mobile and less invasive modalities, promising for extending ECCO 2 R usage from intensive care units to home settings. By examining these technological advancements and their clinical impacts, this paper outlines the potential future directions of ECCO 2 R technology, emphasizing its role in transforming respiratory care practices and enhancing patient outcomes.

Immediate postinjury extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal reduces ventilator requirements and mitigates acute respiratory distress syndrome in swine

BACKGROUND

Awareness of ventilator-induced lung injury contributed to increased use of extracorporeal interventions, but not immediately after injury,before acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) ensues. Our objective was to evaluate the role of venovenous extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO 2 R) in management of mechanically ventilated swine with smoke inhalation injury and 40% body surface area burns.

METHODS

Yorkshire swine (n = 29, 43.2 ± 0.5 kg) underwent anesthesia, instrumentation, severe smoke inhalation, and 40% body surface area burns, followed by 72 hours of round-the-clock intensive care unit care with mechanical ventilation, fluids, pressors, bronchoscopic cast removal, computer tomography scans, and arterial blood assays. Within 1 hour after injury, animals received ECCO 2 R with either MiniLung (Xenios AG, Heilbronn, Germany; n = 10) or Hemolung (ALung Technologies, Pittsburgh, PA; n = 10), or no ECCO 2 R in injured controls (INJC, n = 12).

RESULTS

Immediate postinjury ECCO 2 R reduced minute ventilation ( p < 0.001) and prevented ARDS in 37.5% of MiniLung and 11.1% of Hemolung animals. Time to ARDS (partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio below 300) was shortest (14 ± 2.2 hours) in INJC, intermediate (21.6 ± 3.5 hours) in Hemolung (HEMO), and most delayed in MiniLung (31.1 ± 7.2 hours, p = 0.0121, log-rank test vs. INJC). Driving pressure was lower in MiniLung versus INJC ( p < 0.0001) and HEMO versus INJC ( p = 0.0005) at 48 hours. Extracorporeal CO 2 removal reduced systemic levels of tumor necrosis factor α versus INJC.

CONCLUSION

In swine with severe smoke inhalation and burns, immediate postinjury ECCO 2 R reduced ventilator settings, delayed or prevented ARDS, and reduced its severity. Proactive early percutaneous ECCO 2 R initiation via simplified, purpose-built devices should be considered as a low-maintenance lung injury management approach with significant disease modifying clinical benefit potential.

Recent Advances and Future Directions in Extracorporeal Carbon Dioxide Removal

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2R) is an emerging technique designed to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in venous blood while enabling lung-protective ventilation or alleviating the work of breathing. Unlike high-flow extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), ECCO2R operates at lower blood flows (0.4-1.5 L/min), making it less invasive, with smaller cannulas and simpler devices. Despite encouraging results in controlling respiratory acidosis, its broader adoption is hindered by complications, including haemolysis, thrombosis, and bleeding. Technological advances, including enhanced membrane design, gas exchange efficiency, and anticoagulation strategies, are essential to improving safety and efficacy. Innovations such as wearable prototypes that adapt CO2 removal to patient activity and catheter-based systems for lower blood flow are expanding the potential applications of ECCO2R, including as a bridge-to-lung transplantation and in outpatient settings. Promising experimental approaches include respiratory dialysis, carbonic anhydrase-coated membranes, and electrodialysis to maximise CO2 removal. Further research is needed to optimise device performance, develop cost-effective systems, and establish standardised protocols for safe clinical implementation. As the technology matures, integration with artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning may personalise therapy, improving outcomes. Ongoing clinical trials will be pivotal in addressing these challenges, ultimately enhancing the role of ECCO2R in critical care and its accessibility across healthcare settings.

Monitoring and modulation of respiratory drive in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure in spontaneous breathing

Non-invasive respiratory support, namely, non-invasive ventilation, continuous positive airway pressure, and high-flow nasal cannula, has been increasingly used worldwide to treat acute hypoxemic respiratory failure, giving the benefits of keeping spontaneous breathing preserved. In this scenario, monitoring and controlling respiratory drive could be helpful to avoid patient self-inflicted lung injury and promptly identify those patients that require an upgrade to invasive mechanical ventilation. In this review, we first describe the physiological components affecting respiratory drive to outline the risks associated with its hyperactivation. Further, we analyze and compare the leading strategies implemented for respiratory drive monitoring and discuss the sedative drugs and the non-pharmacological approaches used to modulate respiratory drive during non-invasive respiratory support. Refining the available techniques and rethinking our therapeutic and monitoring targets can help critical care physicians develop a personalized and minimally invasive approach.

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal for patients with acute respiratory failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Acute respiratory failure (ARF) is a common clinical critical syndrome with substantial mortality. Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) has been proposed for the treatment of ARF. However, whether ECCO₂R could provide a survival advantage for patients with ARF is still controversial.

METHODS

Electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane database) were searched from inception to 30 April 2022. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies that examined the following outcomes were included: mortality, length of hospital and ICU stay, intubation and tracheotomy rate, mechanical ventilation days, ventilator-free days (VFDs), respiratory parameters, and reported adverse events.

RESULTS

Four RCTs and five observational studies including 1173 participants with ARF due to COPD or ARDS were included in this meta-analysis. Pooled analyses of related studies showed no significant difference in overall mortality between ECCO₂R and control group, neither in RCTs targeted ARDS or acute hypoxic respiratory failure patients (RR 1.05, 95% CI 0.83 to 1.32, p = 0.70, I² =0.0%), nor in studies targeted patients with ARF secondary to COPD (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.11, p = 0.19, I² =0.0%). A shorter duration of ICU stay in the ECCO₂R group was only obtained in observational studies (WMD -4.25, p < 0.01), and ECCO₂R was associated with a longer length of hospital stay (p = 0.02). ECCO₂R was associated with lower intubation rate (p < 0.01) and tracheotomy rate (p = 0.01), and shorter mechanical ventilation days (p < 0.01) in comparison to control group in ARF patients with COPD. In addition, an improvement in pH (p = 0.01), PaO2 (p = 0.01), respiratory rate (p < 0.01), and PaCO2 (p = 0.04) was also observed in patients with COPD exacerbations by ECCO₂R therapy. However, the ECCO₂R-related complication rate was high in six of the included studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings from both RCTs and observational studies did not confirm a significant beneficial effect of ECCO₂R therapy on mortality. A shorter length of ICU stay in the ECCO₂R group was only obtained in observational studies, and ECCO₂R was associated with a longer length of hospital stay. ECCO₂R was associated with lower intubation rate and tracheotomy rate, and shorter mechanical ventilation days in ARF patients with COPD. And an improvement in pH, PaO2, respiratory rate and PaCO2 was observed in the ECCO₂R group. However, outcomes largely relied on data from observational studies targeted patients with ARF secondary to COPD, thus further larger high-quality RCTs are desirable to strengthen the evidence on the efficacy and benefits of ECCO₂R for patients with ARF.Key messagesECCO₂R therapy did not confirm a significant beneficial effect on mortality.ECCO₂R was associated with lower intubation and tracheotomy rate, and shorter mechanical ventilation days in patients with ARF secondary to COPD.An improvement in pH, PaO2, respiratory rate, and PaCO2 was observed in ECCO₂R group in patients with COPD exacerbations.Evidence for the future application of ECCO₂R therapy for patients with ARF. The protocol of this meta-analysis was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42022295174).

Acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure after treatment with lower tidal volume ventilation facilitated by extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal: long-term outcomes from the REST randomised trial

INTRODUCTION

Lower tidal volume ventilation, facilitated by veno-venous extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (vv-ECCO2R), does not improve 90-day mortality in patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure (AHRF). The aim of this analysis was to evaluate the effect of this therapeutic strategy on long-term outcomes.

METHODS

This was a prespecified analysis of the REST trial, a UK-wide multicentre randomised clinical trial that compared lower tidal volume ventilation, facilitated by vv-ECCO2R (intervention), with standard care in the treatment of patients with moderate-to-severe AHRF. Mortality to 2 years was assessed, while respiratory function, post-traumatic stress disorder, cognitive function and health-related quality of life were evaluated in survivors at 1 year using standardised questionnaires.

RESULTS

Of 412 patients enrolled into the REST trial, 391 (95%) had 2-year mortality outcome data available. There was no difference in the time to death between intervention and standard care (HR 1.08 (0.81, 1.44); log-rank test p=0.61). 161 patients alive at 1 year provided at least one questionnaire response. There was no difference in respiratory function, post-traumatic stress disorder, cognitive dysfunction or health-related quality of life between patients allocated to intervention or standard care.

CONCLUSION

Lower-tidal volume ventilation facilitated by vv-ECCO2R does not affect 1-year mortality in patients with moderate-to-severe AHRF. Of the patients who provided questionnaire responses, there was no treatment effect on long-term respiratory function, post-traumatic stress disorder, cognitive dysfunction or health-related quality of life.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02654327.

[Recent research on extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal]

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is an artificial lung auxiliary technique based on extrapulmonary gas exchange and can effectively remove carbon dioxide and provide oxygenation to a certain extent, and it is one of the effective treatment techniques for hypercapnia developed after mechanical ventilation and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in recent years and has wide application prospect. This article elaborates on the development, working principle, advantages, classification, complications, and clinical application of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal, so as to provide a new choice for extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal in clinical practice.

Extracorporeal Carbon Dioxide Removal: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Applications; Focus on Combined Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy

Lung-protective ventilation (LPV) with low tidal volumes can significantly increase the survival of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) by limiting ventilator-induced lung injuries. However, one of the main concerns regarding the use of LPV is the risk of developing hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis, which may limit the clinical application of this strategy. This is the reason why different extracorporeal CO₂ removal (ECCO₂R) techniques and devices have been developed. They include low-flow or high-flow systems that may be performed with dedicated platforms or, alternatively, combined with continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT). ECCO₂R has demonstrated effectiveness in controlling PaCO₂ levels, thus allowing LPV in patients with ARDS from different causes, including those affected by Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Similarly, the suitability and safety of combined ECCO₂R and CRRT (ECCO₂R-CRRT), which provides CO₂ removal and kidney support simultaneously, have been reported in both retrospective and prospective studies. However, due to the complexity of ARDS patients and the limitations of current evidence, the actual impact of ECCO₂R on patient outcome still remains to be defined. In this review, we discuss the main principles of ECCO₂R and its clinical application in ARDS patients, in particular looking at clinical experiences of combined ECCO₂R-CRRT treatments.

Venovenous extracorporeal CO2 removal to support ultraprotective ventilation in moderate-severe acute respiratory distress syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature

BACKGROUND

A strategy that limits tidal volumes and inspiratory pressures, improves outcomes in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) may facilitate ultra-protective ventilation. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy and safety of venovenous ECCO₂R in supporting ultra-protective ventilation in moderate-to-severe ARDS.

METHODS

MEDLINE and EMBASE were interrogated for studies (2000-2021) reporting venovenous ECCO₂R use in patients with moderate-to-severe ARDS. Studies reporting ≥10 adult patients in English language journals were included. Ventilatory parameters after 24 h of initiating ECCO₂R, device characteristics, and safety outcomes were collected. The primary outcome measure was the change in driving pressure at 24 h of ECCO₂R therapy in relation to baseline. Secondary outcomes included change in tidal volume, gas exchange, and safety data.

RESULTS

Ten studies reporting 421 patients (PaO₂:FiO₂ 141.03 mmHg) were included. Extracorporeal blood flow rates ranged from 0.35-1.5 L/min. Random effects modelling indicated a 3.56 cmH₂O reduction (95%-CI: 3.22-3.91) in driving pressure from baseline (p < .001) and a 1.89 mL/kg (95%-CI: 1.75-2.02, p < .001) reduction in tidal volume. Oxygenation, respiratory rate and PEEP remained unchanged. No significant interactions between driving pressure reduction and baseline driving pressure, partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide or PaO₂:FiO₂ ratio were identified in metaregression analysis. Bleeding and haemolysis were the commonest complications of therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Venovenous ECCO₂R permitted significant reductions in ∆P in patients with moderate-to-severe ARDS. Heterogeneity amongst studies and devices, a paucity of randomised controlled trials, and variable safety reporting calls for standardisation of outcome reporting. Prospective evaluation of optimal device operation and anticoagulation in high quality studies is required before further recommendations can be made.

Design and construction of three-dimensional physiologically-based vascular branching networks for respiratory assist devices

Microfluidic lab-on-a-chip devices are changing the way that in vitro diagnostics and drug development are conducted, based on the increased precision, miniaturization and efficiency of these systems relative to prior methods. However, the full potential of microfluidics as a platform for therapeutic medical devices such as extracorporeal organ support has not been realized, in part due to limitations in the ability to scale current designs and fabrication techniques toward clinically relevant rates of blood flow. Here we report on a method for designing and fabricating microfluidic devices supporting blood flow rates per layer greater than 10 mL min^-1 for respiratory support applications, leveraging advances in precision machining to generate fully three-dimensional physiologically-based branching microchannel networks. The ability of precision machining to create molds with rounded features and smoothly varying channel widths and depths distinguishes the geometry of the microchannel networks described here from all previous reports of microfluidic respiratory assist devices, regarding the ability to mimic vascular blood flow patterns. These devices have been assembled and tested in the laboratory using whole bovine or porcine blood, and in a porcine model to demonstrate efficient gas transfer, blood flow and pressure stability over periods of several hours. This new approach to fabricating and scaling microfluidic devices has the potential to address wide applications in critical care for end-stage organ failure and acute illnesses stemming from respiratory viral infections, traumatic injuries and sepsis.

Choosing a CRRT machine and modality

Expanded use and steady improvements in continuous renal replacement techniques (CRRT) have enhanced the safety of the application of kidney replacement therapy (KRT) to hemodynamically unstable intensive care unit (ICU) patients. The longer duration of therapy and the personalized prescription provided by continuous therapies are associated with greater hemodynamic stability and a modestly higher likelihood of kidney recovery than standard intermittent hemodialysis (IHD). Studies designed to evaluate the effect on mortality over intermittent therapies lack evidence of benefit. A lack of standardization and considerable variation in how CRRT is performed leads to wide variation in how the technique is prescribed, delivered, and optimized. Technology has progressed in critical care nephrology, and more progress is coming. New CRRT machines are equipped with a friendly user interface that allows easy performance and monitoring, permitting outcome measurements and improved patient quality control. This review discusses the key concepts necessary to guide nephrologists to prescribe and deliver KRT to critically ill ICU patients.

Alkaline Liquid Ventilation of the Membrane Lung for Extracorporeal Carbon Dioxide Removal (ECCO2R): In Vitro Study

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) is a promising strategy to manage acute respiratory failure. We hypothesized that ECCO₂R could be enhanced by ventilating the membrane lung with a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution with high CO₂ absorbing capacity. A computed mathematical model was implemented to assess NaOH–CO₂ interactions. Subsequently, we compared NaOH infusion, named “alkaline liquid ventilation”, to conventional oxygen sweeping flows. We built an extracorporeal circuit with two polypropylene membrane lungs, one to remove CO₂ and the other to maintain a constant PCO₂ (60 ± 2 mmHg). The circuit was primed with swine blood. Blood flow was 500 mL × min⁻¹. After testing the safety and feasibility of increasing concentrations of aqueous NaOH (up to 100 mmol × L⁻¹), the CO₂ removal capacity of sweeping oxygen was compared to that of 100 mmol × L⁻¹ NaOH. We performed six experiments to randomly test four sweep flows (100, 250, 500, 1000 mL × min⁻¹) for each fluid plus 10 L × min⁻¹ oxygen. Alkaline liquid ventilation proved to be feasible and safe. No damages or hemolysis were detected. NaOH showed higher CO₂ removal capacity compared to oxygen for flows up to 1 L × min⁻¹. However, the highest CO₂ extraction power exerted by NaOH was comparable to that of 10 L × min⁻¹ oxygen. Further studies with dedicated devices are required to exploit potential clinical applications of alkaline liquid ventilation.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and V/Q ratios: an ex vivo analysis of CO2 clearance within the Maquet Quadrox-iD oxygenator

While hypercapnia is typically well treated with modern membrane oxygenators, there are cases where respiratory acidosis persists despite maximal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support. To better understand the physiology of gas exchange within the membrane oxygenator, CO₂ clearance within an adult Maquet Quadrox-iD oxygenator was evaluated at varying blood CO₂ tensions and V/Q ratios in an ex vivo extracorporeal membrane oxygenation circuit. A closed blood-primed circuit incorporating two Maquet Quadrox-iD oxygenators in series was attached to a Maquet PLS Rotaflow pump. A varying blend of CO₂ and air was connected to the first oxygenator to provide different levels of pre-oxygenator blood CO₂ levels (P_vCO₂) to the second oxygenator. Varying sweep gas flows of 100% O₂ were connected to the second oxygenator to provide different V/Q ratios. Exhaust CO₂ was directly measured, and then VCO₂ and oxygenator dead space fraction (V_D/V_T) were calculated. VCO₂ increased with increasing gas flow rates with plateauing at V/Q ratios greater than 4.0. Exhaust CO₂ increased with P_vCO₂ in a linear fashion with the slope of the line decreasing at high V/Q ratios. Oxygenator dead space fraction varied with V/Q ratio-at lower ratios, dead space fraction was 0.3-0.4 and rose to 0.8-0.9 at ratios greater than 4.0. Within the Maquet Quadrox-iD oxygenator, CO₂ clearance is limited at high V/Q ratios and correlated with elevated oxygenator dead space fraction. These findings have important implications for patients requiring high levels of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support.

Diaphragm function in acute respiratory failure and the potential role of phrenic nerve stimulation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The aim of this review was to describe the risk factors for developing diaphragm dysfunction, discuss the monitoring techniques for diaphragm activity and function, and introduce potential strategies to incorporate diaphragm protection into conventional lung-protective mechanical ventilation strategies.

RECENT FINDINGS

It is increasingly apparent that an approach that addresses diaphragm-protective ventilations goals is needed to optimize ventilator management and improve patient outcomes. Ventilator-induced diaphragm dysfunction (VIDD) is common and is associated with increased ICU length of stay, prolonged weaning and increased mortality. Over-assistance, under-assistance and patient-ventilator dyssynchrony may have important downstream clinical consequences related to VIDD. Numerous monitoring techniques are available to assess diaphragm function, including respiratory system pressures, oesophageal manometry, diaphragm ultrasound and electromyography. Novel techniques including phrenic nerve stimulation may facilitate the achievement of lung and diaphragm-protective goals for mechanical ventilation.

SUMMARY

Diaphragm protection is an important consideration in optimizing ventilator management in patients with acute respiratory failure. The delicate balance between lung and diaphragm-protective goals is challenging. Phrenic nerve stimulation may be uniquely situated to achieve and balance these two commonly conflicting goals.

Respiratory Dialysis-A Novel Low Bicarbonate Dialysate to Provide Extracorporeal CO2 Removal

OBJECTIVES

We designed a novel respiratory dialysis system to remove CO2 from blood in the form of bicarbonate. We aimed to determine if our respiratory dialysis system removes CO2 at rates comparable to low-flow extracorporeal CO2 removal devices (blood flow < 500 mL/min) in a large animal model.

DESIGN

Experimental study.

SETTING

Animal research laboratory.

SUBJECTS

Female Yorkshire pigs.

INTERVENTIONS

Five bicarbonate dialysis experiments were performed. Hypercapnia (PCO2 90-100 mm Hg) was established in mechanically ventilated swine by adjusting the tidal volume. Dialysis was then performed with a novel low bicarbonate dialysate.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

We measured electrolytes, blood gases, and plasma-free hemoglobin in arterial blood, as well as blood entering and exiting the dialyzer. We used a physical-chemical acid-base model to understand the factors influencing blood pH after bicarbonate removal. During dialysis, we removed 101 (±13) mL/min of CO2 (59 mL/min when normalized to venous PCO2 of 45 mm Hg), corresponding to a 29% reduction in PaCO2 (104.0 ± 8.1 vs 74.2 ± 8.4 mm Hg; p < 0.001). Minute ventilation and body temperature were unchanged during dialysis (1.2 ± 0.4 vs 1.1 ± 0.4 L/min; p = 1.0 and 35.3°C ± 0.9 vs 35.2°C ± 0.6; p = 1.0). Arterial pH increased after bicarbonate removal (7.13 ± 0.04 vs 7.21 ± 0.05; p < 0.001) despite no attempt to realkalinize the blood. Our modeling showed that dialysate electrolyte composition, plasma albumin, and plasma total CO2 accurately predict the measured pH of blood exiting the dialyser. However, the final effluent dose exceeded conventional doses, depleting plasma glucose and electrolytes, such as potassium and phosphate.

CONCLUSIONS

Bicarbonate dialysis results in CO2 removal at rates comparable with existing low-flow extracorporeal CO2 removal in a large animal model, but the final dialysis dose delivered needs to be reduced before the technique can be used for prolonged periods.

Basics of extra corporeal membrane oxygenation: a pediatric intensivist's perspective

Extra Corporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is one of the most advanced forms of life support therapy in the Intensive Care Unit. It relies on the principle where an external artificial circuit carries venous blood from the patient to a gas exchange device (oxygenator) within which blood becomes enriched with oxygen and has carbon dioxide removed. The blood is then returned to the patient via a central vein or an artery. The goal of ECMO is to provide a physiologic milieu for recovery in refractory cardiac/respiratory failure. The technology is not a definitive treatment for a disease, but provides valuable time for the body to recover. In that way it can be compared to a bridge, where patients are initiated on ECMO as a bridge to recovery, bridge to decision making, bridge to transplant or bridge to diagnosis. The use of this modality in children is not backed by a lot of randomized controlled trials, but the use has increased dramatically in our country in last 10 years. This article is not intended to provide an in-depth overview of ECMO, but outlines the basic principles that a pediatric intensive care physician should know in order to manage a kid on ECMO support.

The use of extracorporeal CO2 removal in acute respiratory failure

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbation and protective mechanical ventilation of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) patients induce hypercapnic respiratory acidosis.

Main text

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) aims to eliminate blood CO₂ to fight against the adverse effects of hypercapnia and related acidosis. Hypercapnia has deleterious extrapulmonary consequences, particularly for the brain. In addition, in the lung, hypercapnia leads to: lower pH, pulmonary vasoconstriction, increases in right ventricular afterload, acute cor pulmonale. Moreover, hypercapnic acidosis may further damage the lungs by increasing both nitric oxide production and inflammation and altering alveolar epithelial cells. During an exacerbation of COPD, relieving the native lungs of at least a portion of the CO₂ could potentially reduce the patient's respiratory work, Instead of mechanically increasing alveolar ventilation with MV in an already hyperinflated lung to increase CO₂ removal, the use of ECCO₂R may allow a decrease in respiratory volume and respiratory rate, resulting in improvement of lung mechanic. Thus, the use of ECCO₂R may prevent noninvasive ventilation failure and allow intubated patients to be weaned off mechanical ventilation. In ARDS patients, ECCO₂R may be used to promote an ultraprotective ventilation in allowing to lower tidal volume, plateau (Pplat) and driving pressures, parameters that have identified as a major risk factors for mortality. However, although ECCO₂R appears to be effective in improving gas exchange and possibly in reducing the rate of endotracheal intubation and allowing more protective ventilation, its use may have pulmonary and hemodynamic consequences and may be associated with complications.

Conclusion

In selected patients, ECCO₂R may be a promising adjunctive therapeutic strategy for the management of patients with severe COPD exacerbation and for the establishment of protective or ultraprotective ventilation in patients with ARDS without prognosis-threatening hypoxemia.

Suitable CO2 Solubility Models for Determination of the CO2 Removal Performance of Oxygenators

CO₂ removal via membrane oxygenators during lung protective ventilation has become a reliable clinical technique. For further optimization of oxygenators, accurate prediction of the CO₂ removal rate is necessary. It can either be determined by measuring the CO₂ content in the exhaust gas of the oxygenator (sweep flow-based) or using blood gas analyzer data and a CO₂ solubility model (blood-based). In this study, we determined the CO₂ removal rate of a prototype oxygenator utilizing both methods in in vitro trials with bovine and in vivo trials with porcine blood. While the sweep flow-based method is reliably accurate, the blood-based method depends on the accuracy of the solubility model. In this work, we quantified performances of four different solubility models by calculating the deviation of the CO₂ removal rates determined by both methods. Obtained data suggest that the simplest model (Loeppky) performs better than the more complex ones (May, Siggaard-Anderson, and Zierenberg). The models of May, Siggaard-Anderson, and Zierenberg show a significantly better performance for in vitro bovine blood data than for in vivo porcine blood data. Furthermore, the suitability of the Loeppky model parameters for bovine blood (in vitro) and porcine blood (in vivo) is evaluated.

Extracorporeal and advanced therapies for progressive refractory near-fatal acute severe asthma in children

Asthma is the most common chronic illness and is one of the most common medical emergencies in children. Progressive refractory near-fatal asthma requiring intubation and mechanical ventilation can lead to death. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) can provide adequate gas exchange during acute respiratory failure although data on outcomes in children requiring ECMO support for status asthmaticus is sparse with one study reporting survival rates of nearly 85% with asthma being one of the best outcome subsets for patients with refractory respiratory failure requiring ECMO support. We describe the current literature on the use of ECMO and other advanced extracorporeal therapies available for children with acute severe asthma. We also review other advanced invasive and noninvasive therapies in acute severe asthma both before and while on ECMO support.

A Proof of Concept Study, Demonstrating Extracorporeal Carbon Dioxide Removal Using Hemodialysis with a Low Bicarbonate Dialysate

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2R) devices remove CO2 directly from blood, facilitating ultraprotective ventilation or even providing an alternative to mechanical ventilation. However, ECCO2R is not widely available, whereas dialysis is available in most intensive care units (ICUs). Prior attempts to provide ECCO2R with dialysis, by removing CO2 in the form of bicarbonate, have been plagued by metabolic acidosis. We hypothesized that bicarbonate dialysis is feasible, provided the plasma strong ion difference is maintained. We used a mathematical model to investigate the effects of bicarbonate removal on pH and CO2 in plasma, and performed in-vitro experiments to test CO2 removal using three dialysates with different bicarbonate concentrations (0, 16, and 32 mmol·L). Our modeling predicted a reduction in partial pressures of CO2 (PCO2) and increased pH with progressive lowering of plasma bicarbonate, provided strong ion difference and plasma proteins (Atot) were maintained. In our in-vitro experiments, total CO2 removal, scaled up to an adult size filter, was highest with our dialysate containing no bicarbonate, where we removed the equivalent of 94 ml·min (±3.0) of CO2. Under the same conditions, our dialysate containing a conventional bicarbonate concentration (32 mmol·L) only removed 5 ml·min (±4; p < 0.001). As predicted, pH increased following bicarbonate removal. Our data show that dialysis using low bicarbonate dialysates is feasible and results in a reduction in plasma PCO2. When scaled up, to estimate equivalent CO2 removal with an adult dialysis circuit, the amount removed competes with existing low-flow ECCO2R devices.

In vitro characterization of PrismaLung+: a novel ECCO2R device

BACKGROUND

Invasive mechanical ventilation is lifesaving in the setting of severe acute respiratory failure but can cause ventilation-induced lung injury. Advances in extracorporeal CO₂ removal (ECCO₂R) technologies may facilitate more protective lung ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome, and enable earlier weaning and/or avoid invasive mechanical ventilation entirely in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. We evaluated the in vitro CO₂ removal capacity of the novel PrismaLung+ ECCO₂R device compared with two existing gas exchangers.

METHODS

The in vitro CO₂ removal capacity of the PrismaLung+ (surface area 0.8 m², Baxter) was compared with the PrismaLung (surface area 0.35 m², Baxter) and A.L.ONE (surface area 1.35 m², Eurosets) devices, using a closed-loop bovine blood-perfused extracorporeal circuit. The efficacy of each device was measured at varying pCO₂ inlet (p_inCO₂) levels (45, 60, and 80 mmHg) and blood flow rates (Q_B) of 200-450 mL/min; the PrismaLung+ and A.L.ONE devices were also tested at a Q_B of 600 mL/min. The amount of CO₂ removed by each device was assessed by measurement of the CO₂ infused to maintain circuit equilibrium (CO₂ infusion method) and compared with measured CO₂ concentrations in the inlet and outlet of the CO₂ removal device (blood gas analysis method).

RESULTS

The PrismaLung+ device performed similarly to the A.L.ONE device, with both devices demonstrating CO₂ removal rates ~ 50% greater than the PrismaLung device. CO₂ removal rates were 73 ± 4.0, 44 ± 2.5, and 72 ± 1.9 mL/min, for PrismaLung+, PrismaLung, and A.L.ONE, respectively, at Q_B 300 mL/min and p_inCO₂ 45 mmHg. A Bland-Altman plot demonstrated that the CO₂ infusion method was comparable to the blood gas analysis method for calculating CO₂ removal. The resistance to blood flow across the test device, as measured by pressure drop, varied as a function of blood flow rate, and was greatest for PrismaLung and lowest for the A.L.ONE device.

CONCLUSIONS

The newly developed PrismaLung+ performed more effectively than PrismaLung, with performance of CO₂ removal comparable to A.L.ONE at the flow rates tested, despite the smaller membrane surface area of PrismaLung+ versus A.L.ONE. Clinical testing of PrismaLung+ is warranted to further characterize its performance.

Update on extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal: a comprehensive review on principles, indications, efficiency, and complications

TECHNOLOGY

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal means the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood across a gas exchange membrane without substantially improving oxygenation. Carbon dioxide removal is possible with substantially less extracorporeal blood flow than needed for oxygenation. Techniques for extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal include (1) pumpless arterio-venous circuits, (2) low-flow venovenous circuits based on the technology of continuous renal replacement therapy, and (3) venovenous circuits based on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation technology.

INDICATIONS

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal has been shown to enable more protective ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients, even beyond the so-called "protective" level. Although experimental data suggest a benefit on ventilator induced lung injury, no hard clinical evidence with respect to improved outcome exists. In addition, extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is a tool to avoid intubation and mechanical ventilation in patients with acute exacerbated chronic obstructive pulmonary disease failing non-invasive ventilation. This concept has been shown to be effective in 56-90% of patients. Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal has also been used in ventilated patients with hypercapnic respiratory failure to correct acidosis, unload respiratory muscle burden, and facilitate weaning. In patients suffering from terminal fibrosis awaiting lung transplantation, extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is able to correct acidosis and enable spontaneous breathing during bridging. Keeping these patients awake, ambulatory, and breathing spontaneously is associated with favorable outcome.

COMPLICATIONS

Complications of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal are mostly associated with vascular access and deranged hemostasis leading to bleeding. Although the spectrum of complications may differ, no technology offers advantages with respect to rate and severity of complications. So called "high-extraction systems" working with higher blood flows and larger membranes may be more effective with respect to clinical goals.

Dual Carbon Dioxide Capture to Achieve Highly Efficient Ultra-Low Blood Flow Extracorporeal Carbon Dioxide Removal

Extracorporeal CO₂ removal is a highly promising support therapy for patients with hypercapnic respiratory failure but whose clinical implementation and patient benefit is hampered by high cost and highly specialized expertise required for safe use. Current approaches target removal of the gaseous CO₂ dissolved in blood which limits their ease of clinical use as high blood flow rates are required to achieve physiologically significant CO₂ clearance. Here, a novel hybrid approach in which a zero-bicarbonate dialysis is used to target removal of bicarbonate ion coupled to a gas exchange device to clear dissolved CO₂, achieves highly efficiently total CO₂ capture while maintaining systemic acid-base balance. In a porcine model of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure, a CO₂-reduction of 61.4 ± 14.4 mL/min was achieved at a blood flow rate of 248 mL/min using pediatric-scale priming volumes. The dialyzer accounted for 81% of total CO₂ capture with an efficiency of 33% with a minimal pH change across the entire circuit. This study demonstrates the feasibility of a novel hybrid CO₂ capture approach capable of achieving physiologically significant CO₂ removal at ultralow blood flow rates with low priming volumes while leveraging widely available dialysis platforms to enable clinical adoption.

A CO2 removal system using extracorporeal lung and renal assist device with an acid and alkaline infusion

The patients with respiratory failure need high tidal volume by mechanical ventilation, which lead to the ventilator-induced lung injury. We developed an extracorporeal lung and renal assist device (ELRAD), comprising acid infusion, membrane lung, continuous hemodiafiltration and alkaline infusion. To evaluate this system, we conducted in vivo studies using experimental swine which were connected to the new system. In vivo experiments consist of four protocols; baseline = hemodiafiltration only (no O₂ gas flow to membrane lung); membrane lung = "Baseline" plus O₂ gas flow to membrane lung; "Acid infusion" = "Membrane lung" plus continuous acid infusion; ELRAD = "Acid infusion" plus continuous alkaline infusion. We changed the ventilatory rate of the mechanical ventilation to maintain PCO₂ at 50-55 mmHg during the four protocols. The results showed that there was statistically no significant difference in the levels of pH, HCO₃^-, and base excess when each study protocol was initiated. The amount of CO₂ eliminated by the membrane lung significantly increased by 1.6 times in the acid infusion protocol and the ELRAD protocol compared to the conventional membrane lung protocol. Minute ventilation in the ELRAD protocol significantly decreased by 0.5 times compared with the hemodiafiltration only protocol (P < 0.0001), the membrane lung (P = 0.0006) and acid infusion protocol (P = 0.0017), respectively. In conclusion, a developed CO₂ removal system efficiently removed CO₂ at low blood flow and reduced minute ventilation, while maintaining acid-base balance within the normal range.

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal for lowering the risk of mechanical ventilation: research questions and clinical potential for the future

As a result of technical improvements, extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) now has the potential to play an important role in the management of adults with acute respiratory failure. There is growing interest in the use of ECCO₂R for the management of both hypoxaemic and hypercapnic respiratory failure. However, evidence to support its use is scarce and several questions remain about the best way to implement this therapy, which can be associated with serious side-effects. This Review reflects the consensus opinion of an international group of clinician scientists with expertise in managing acute respiratory failure and in using ECCO₂R therapies in this setting. We concisely review clinically relevant aspects of ECCO₂R, and provide a series of recommendations for clinical practice and future research, covering topics that include the practicalities of ECCO₂R delivery, indications for use, and service delivery.

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal for acute hypercapnic respiratory failure

In the past, the only treatment of acute exacerbations of obstructive diseases with hypercapnic respiratory failure refractory to medical treatment was invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV). Considerable technical improvements transformed extracorporeal techniques for carbon dioxide removal in an attractive option to avoid worsening respiratory failure and respiratory acidosis, and to potentially prevent or shorten the duration of IMV in patients with exacerbation of COPD and asthma. In this review, we will present a summary of the pathophysiological rationale and evidence of ECCO₂R in patients with severe exacerbations of these pathologies.

Carbon dioxide removal using low bicarbonate dialysis in rodents

Background:

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal may be used to manage hypercapnia, but compared to dialysis, it’s not widely available. A recent in vitro study showed that dialysis with low bicarbonate dialysates removes CO2.

Objective:

To show that bicarbonate dialysis removes CO2 in an animal model to validate in-vitro findings and quantify the effect on arterial pH.

Methods:

Male Sprague-Dawley hypercapnic rats were dialyzed with either a conventional dialysate (PrismasolTM) or a bicarbonate-free dialysate (Bicarb0). The effect of dialysis on standard blood gases and electrolytes was measured.

Results:

Partial pressure of CO2 and bicarbonate concentration in blood decreased significantly after exposure to Bicarb0 compared to PrismasolTM (filter outflow values 12.8 vs 81.1 mmHg; p < 0.01 for CO2 and 3.5 vs 22.0 mmol/L; p < 0.01 for bicarbonate). Total CO2 content of blood was reduced by 459 mL/L during dialysis with Bicarb0 (filter inflow 546 ± 91 vs filter outflow 87 ± 52 mL/L; p < 0.01), but was not significantly reduced with PrismasolTM.

Conclusions:

Bicarbonate dialysis removes CO2 at rates comparable to existing low-flow ECCO2R.

Extracellular vesicles: biomarkers and regulators of vascular function during extracorporeal circulation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are generated at increased rates from parenchymal and circulating blood cells during exposure of the circulation to abnormal flow conditions and foreign materials associated with extracorporeal circuits (ExCors). This review describes types of EVs produced in different ExCors and extracorporeal life support (ECLS) systems including cardiopulmonary bypass circuits, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R), apheresis, dialysis and ventricular assist devices. Roles of EVs not only as biomarkers of adverse events during ExCor/ECLS use, but also as mediators of vascular dysfunction are explored. Manipulation of the number or subtypes of circulating EVs may prove a means of improving vascular function for individuals requiring ExCor/ECLS support. Strategies for therapeutic manipulation of EVs during ExCor/ECLS use are discussed such as accelerating their clearance, preventing their genesis or pharmacologic options to reduce or select which and how many EVs circulate. Strategies to reduce or select for specific types of EVs may prove beneficial in preventing or treating other EV-related diseases such as cancer.

Rescue therapy for hypercapnia due to high PEEP mechanical ventilation in patients with ARDS and renal failure

Extracorporeal removal of carbon dioxide in patients experiencing severe hypercapnia due to lung protective mechanical ventilation was first described over four decades ago. There have been many devices developed and described in the interim, many of which require additional training, resources, and staff. This manuscript describes a readily available and relatively simple adjunct that can provide partial lung support in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome complicated by severe hypercapnia and acute kidney injury requiring dialysis.

The features of AECOPD with carbon dioxide retention

Background

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) with carbon dioxide retention is associated with a worsening clinical condition and the beginning of pulmonary ventilation decompensation. This study aimed to identify the factors associated with carbon dioxide retention.

Methods

This was a retrospective study of consecutive patients with COPD (meeting the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease diagnostic criteria) hospitalized at The Ninth Hospital of Xi’an Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University between October 2014 and September 2017. The baseline demographic, clinical, laboratory, pulmonary function, and imaging data were compared between the 86 cases with carbon dioxide retention and the 144 cases without carbon dioxide retention.

Results

Compared with the non-carbon dioxide retention group, the group with carbon dioxide retention had a higher number of hospitalizations in the previous 12 months (p = 0.013), higher modified Medical Research Council (mMRC) dyspnea scores (p = 0.034), lower arterial oxygen pressure (p = 0.018), worse pulmonary function (forced expiratory volume in one second/forced vital capacity [FEV₁/FVC; p < 0.001], FEV₁%pred [p < 0.001], Z5%pred [p = 0.004], R5%pred [p = 0.008], R5-R20 [p = 0.009], X5 [p = 0.022], and Ax [p = 0.011]), more severe lung damage (such as increased lung volume [p = 0.011], more emphysema range [p = 0.007], and lower mean lung density [p = 0.043]). FEV₁ < 1 L (odds ratio [OR] = 4.011, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.216–7.262) and emphysema index (EI) > 20% (OR = 1.926, 95% CI: 1.080–3.432) were independently associated with carbon dioxide retention in COPD.

Conclusion

Compared with the non-carbon dioxide retention group, the group with carbon dioxide retention had different clinical, pulmonary function, and imaging features. FEV₁ < 1 L and EI > 20% were independently associated with carbon dioxide retention in AECOPD.

Trial registration

ChiCTR-OCH-14004904. Registered 25 June 2014.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12890-018-0691-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Efficient CO2 removal using extracorporeal lung and renal assist device

We developed a novel system comprising acid infusion, membrane lung, and a continuous renal replacement therapy console for efficient CO₂ removal at a low blood flow. To evaluate the new system, we used an ex vivo experimental model using swine blood. A liter of aliquoted blood adjusted to pH 7.25 and pCO₂ 65 mm Hg was mixed with acid (0, 10, or 20 mL of lactic or hydrochloric acid [1 mol/L]) and was immediately delivered to the system in a single pass. We collected blood samples at each point of the circuit and calculated the amount of CO₂ eliminated by the membrane lung. The new system removed 13.2 ± 0.8, 32.0 ± 2.1, and 51.6 ± 3.7 mL/min of CO₂ (with 0, 10, and 20 mEq/L of lactic acid) and 21.2 ± 1.2, 27.3 ± 0.3, and 42.0 ± 1.3 mL/min (with 0, 10, and 20 mEq/L of hydrochloric acid), respectively. The levels of lactate and Cl^- ions for acid-base equilibrium were restored after continuous hemodiafiltration. Thus, the amount of CO₂ eliminated by the membrane lung was 3.9 times higher with lactic acid and 2.0 times higher with hydrochloric acid compared with non-acid controls. In conclusion, this easy-to-setup CO₂ removal system was safe, effective, and removed CO₂ at a low blood flow.

Paracorporeal Lung Devices: Thinking Outside the Box

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) is a resource intensive, life-preserving support system that has seen ever-expanding clinical indications as technology and collective experience has matured. Clinicians caring for patients who develop pulmonary failure secondary to cardiac failure can find themselves in unique situations where traditional ECMO may not be the ideal clinical solution. Existing paracorporeal ventricular assist device (VAD) technology or unique patient physiologies offer the opportunity for thinking "outside the box." Hybrid ECMO approaches include splicing oxygenators into paracorporeal VAD systems and alternative cannulation strategies to provide a staged approach to transition a patient from ECMO to a VAD. Alternative technologies include the adaptation of ECMO and extracorporeal CO₂ removal systems for specific physiologies and pediatric aged patients. This chapter will focus on: (1) hybrid and alternative approaches to extracorporeal support for pulmonary failure, (2) patient selection and, (3) technical considerations of these therapies. By examining the successes and challenges of the relatively select patients treated with these approaches, we hope to spur appropriate research and development to expand the clinical armamentarium of extracorporeal technology.

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal in acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2R) has been proposed as an adjunctive intervention to avoid worsening respiratory acidosis, thereby preventing or shortening the duration of invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) in patients with exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This review will present a comprehensive summary of the pathophysiological rationale and clinical evidence of ECCO2R in patients suffering from severe COPD exacerbations.

Quantification of Carbon Dioxide Removal at Low Sweep Gas and Blood Flows

Advancement in oxygenator membrane technology has further expanded the boundaries in the clinical application of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R). Despite the advent of modern poly-4-methyl-1-pentene (PMP) membranes, limited information exists on the performance of these membranes at low sweep gas and blood flows. Moreover, physiological relationships for CO₂ removal at these flows are less explored. Hence, CO₂ removal was quantified in an in vitro setting using a PMP membrane oxygenator. ECCO₂R was performed using a .8 m² surface pediatric oxygenator in an in vitro setting with freshly drawn single-source porcine blood. In this setting, low blood flows of either 200 or 350 mL/min were generated, with sweep gas flow rates of 100, 200, and 400 mL/min, respectively. CO₂ transfer ranged from 14.05 ± 4.35 mL/min/m² to 18.76 ± 4.26 mL/min/m² at a sweep gas to a blood flow ratio of .5:1 to 2:1 (p < .01). Decreasing this ratio i.e., increasing the blood flow (.5:1.75 and 2:1.75) resulted in a lower CO₂ transfer of 10.00 ± 4.77 mL/min/m² to 16.87 ± 5.09 mL/min/m², which was still statistically significant (p < .01). Alternatively, decreasing the sweep gas to blood flow ratio, while maintaining a constant gas flow, did not show a significant increase in CO₂ extraction (p > .05). At these test parameters, an increase in sweep gas improved the CO₂ transfer, whereas an increase in blood flow resulted in a lower CO₂ transfer. These results indicate that CO₂ removal in low-flow ECCO₂R is mainly sweep gas flow driven. Although these settings might not be applicable for clinical use, this study gives tangible information about the important factor involved in ECCO₂R.

Extracorporeal Gas Exchange: The Expanding Role of Extracorporeal Support in Respiratory Failure

The use of extracorporeal support is expanding quickly in adult respiratory failure. Extracorporeal gas exchange is an accepted rescue therapy for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in select patients. Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is also being investigated as a preventative, preemptive, and management platform in patients with respiratory failure other than severe ARDS. The non-ARDS patient population is much larger, so the potential for rapid growth is high. This article hopes to inform decisions about the use of extracorporeal support by increasing understanding concerning the past and present practice of extracorporeal gas exchange.

An extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2R) device operating at hemodialysis blood flow rates

Background

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) systems have gained clinical appeal as supplemental therapy in the treatment of acute and chronic respiratory injuries with low tidal volume or non-invasive ventilation. We have developed an ultra-low-flow ECCO₂R device (ULFED) capable of operating at blood flows comparable to renal hemodialysis (250 mL/min). Comparable operating conditions allow use of minimally invasive dialysis cannulation strategies with potential for direct integration to existing dialysis circuitry.

Methods

A carbon dioxide (CO₂) removal device was fabricated with rotating impellers inside an annular hollow fiber membrane bundle to disrupt blood flow patterns and enhance gas exchange. In vitro gas exchange and hemolysis testing was conducted at hemodialysis blood flows (250 mL/min).

Results

In vitro carbon dioxide removal rates up to 75 mL/min were achieved in blood at normocapnia (pCO₂ = 45 mmHg). In vitro hemolysis (including cannula and blood pump) was comparable to a Medtronic Minimax oxygenator control loop using a time-of-therapy normalized index of hemolysis (0.19 ± 0.04 g/100 min versus 0.12 ± 0.01 g/100 min, p = 0.169).

Conclusions

In vitro performance suggests a new ultra-low-flow extracorporeal CO₂ removal device could be utilized for safe and effective CO₂ removal at hemodialysis flow rates using simplified and minimally invasive connection strategies.

Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy: Forty-year Anniversary

In 1977 Peter Kramer performed the first CAVH (continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration) treatment in Gottingen, Germany. CAVH soon became a reliable alternative to hemo- or peritoneal dialysis in critically ill patients. The limitations of CAVH spurred new research and the discovery of new treatments such as CVVH and CVVHD (continuous veno-venous hemofiltration and continuous veno-venous hemodialysis). The alliance with industry led to development of new specialized equipment with improved accuracy and performance in delivering continuous renal replacement therapies (CRRTs). Machines and filters have progressively undergone a series of technological steps, reaching a high level of sophistication. The evolution of technology has continued, leading to the development and clinical application of new membranes, new techniques and new treatment modalities. With the progress of technology, the entire field of critical care nephrology moved forward, expanding the areas of application of extracorporeal therapies to cardiac, liver and pulmonary support. A great deal of research made extracorporeal therapies an interesting option for the treatment of sepsis and intoxication and the additional use of sorbents was explored. With the progress in understanding the pathophysiology of acute kidney injury (AKI), new guidelines were developed, driving indications, modalities of prescription, monitoring techniques and quality assurance programs. Information technology and precision medicine have recently contributed to further evolution of CRRT, with the possibility of collecting data in large databases and evaluating policies and practice patterns. This is likely to ultimately result in improved patient care. CRRTs are 40 years old today, but they are still young and full of potential for further evolution.

[Extracorporeal lung support]

Systems for extracorporeal lung support have recently undergone significant technological improvements leading to more effective and safe treatment. Despite limited scientific evidence these systems are increasingly used in the intensive care unit for treatment of different types of acute respiratory failure. In general two types of systems can be differentiated: devices for extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO₂R) for ventilatory insufficiency and devices for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for severe hypoxemic failure. Despite of all technological developments extracorporeal lung support remains an invasive and a potentially dangerous form of treatment with bleeding and vascular injury being the two main complications. For this reason indications and contraindications should always be critically considered and extracorporeal lung support should only be carried out in centers with appropriate experience and expertise.

Extracorporeal CO2 removal by hemodialysis: in vitro model and feasibility

BACKGROUND

Critically ill patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome and acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease often develop hypercapnia and require mechanical ventilation. Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal can manage hypercarbia by removing carbon dioxide directly from the bloodstream. Respiratory hemodialysis uses traditional hemodialysis to remove CO₂ from the blood, mainly as bicarbonate. In this study, Stewart's approach to acid-base chemistry was used to create a dialysate that would maintain blood pH while removing CO₂ as well as determine the blood and dialysate flow rates necessary to remove clinically relevant CO₂ volumes.

METHODS

Bench studies were performed using a scaled down respiratory hemodialyzer in bovine or porcine blood. The scaling factor for the bench top experiments was 22.5. In vitro dialysate flow rates ranged from 2.2 to 24 mL/min (49.5-540 mL/min scaled up) and blood flow rates were set at 11 and 18.7 mL/min (248-421 mL/min scaled up). Blood inlet CO₂ concentrations were set at 50 and 100 mmHg.

RESULTS

Results are reported as scaled up values. The CO₂ removal rate was highest at intermittent hemodialysis blood and dialysate flow rates. At an inlet pCO₂ of 50 mmHg, the CO₂ removal rate increased from 62.6 ± 4.8 to 77.7 ± 3 mL/min when the blood flow rate increased from 248 to 421 mL/min. At an inlet pCO₂ of 100 mmHg, the device was able to remove up to 117.8 ± 3.8 mL/min of CO₂. None of the test conditions caused the blood pH to decrease, and increases were ≤0.08.

CONCLUSIONS

When the bench top data is scaled up, the system removes a therapeutic amount of CO₂ standard intermittent hemodialysis flow rates. The zero bicarbonate dialysate did not cause acidosis in the post-dialyzer blood. These results demonstrate that, with further development, respiratory hemodialysis can be a minimally invasive extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal treatment option.

Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (ECCO2R) in patients with acute respiratory failure

PURPOSE

To review the available knowledge related to the use of ECCO₂R as adjuvant strategy to mechanical ventilation (MV) in various clinical settings of acute respiratory failure (ARF).

METHODS

Expert opinion and review of the literature.

RESULTS

ECCO₂R may be a promising adjuvant therapeutic strategy for the management of patients with severe exacerbations of COPD and for the achievement of protective or ultra-protective ventilation in patients with ARDS without life-threatening hypoxemia. Given the observational nature of most of the available clinical data and differences in technical features and performances of current devices, the balance of risks and benefits for or against ECCO₂R in such patient populations remains unclear CONCLUSIONS: ECCO₂R is currently an experimental technique rather than an accepted therapeutic strategy in ARF-its safety and efficacy require confirmation in clinical trials.

pRotective vEntilation with veno-venouS lung assisT in respiratory failure: A protocol for a multicentre randomised controlled trial of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal in patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure

One of the few interventions to demonstrate improved outcomes for acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure is reducing tidal volumes when using mechanical ventilation, often termed lung protective ventilation. Veno-venous extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal (vv-ECCO₂R) can facilitate reducing tidal volumes. pRotective vEntilation with veno-venouS lung assisT (REST) is a randomised, allocation concealed, controlled, open, multicentre pragmatic trial to determine the clinical and cost-effectiveness of lower tidal volume mechanical ventilation facilitated by vv-ECCO₂R in patients with acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure. Patients requiring intubation and mechanical ventilation for acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure will be randomly allocated to receive either vv-ECCO₂R and lower tidal volume mechanical ventilation or standard care with stratification by recruitment centre. There is a need for a large randomised controlled trial to establish whether vv-ECCO₂R in acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure can allow the use of a more protective lung ventilation strategy and is associated with improved patient outcomes.

Nomenclature for renal replacement therapy and blood purification techniques in critically ill patients: practical applications

This article reports the conclusions of the second part of a consensus expert conference on the nomenclature of renal replacement therapy (RRT) techniques currently utilized to manage acute kidney injury and other organ dysfunction syndromes in critically ill patients. A multidisciplinary approach was taken to achieve harmonization of definitions, components, techniques, and operations of the extracorporeal therapies. The article describes the RRT techniques in detail with the relevant technology, procedures, and phases of treatment and key aspects of volume management/fluid balance in critically ill patients. In addition, the article describes recent developments in other extracorporeal therapies, including therapeutic plasma exchange, multiple organ support therapy, liver support, lung support, and blood purification in sepsis. This is a consensus report on nomenclature harmonization in extracorporeal blood purification therapies, such as hemofiltration, plasma exchange, multiple organ support therapies, and blood purification in sepsis.