Identification and utilization of arbitrary correlations in models of recombination signal sequences

Development of ferret immune repertoire reference resources and single-cell-based high-throughput profiling assays

Domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) are important for modeling human respiratory diseases. However, ferret B and T cell receptors have not been completely identified or annotated, limiting immune repertoire studies. Here, we performed long-read transcriptome sequencing of ferret splenocyte and lymph node samples to obtain over 120,000 high-quality full-length immunoglobin (Ig) and T cell receptor (TCR) transcripts. We constructed a complete reference set of the constant regions of ferret Ig and TCR isotypes and chain types. We also systematically annotated germline Ig and TCR variable (V), diversity (D), joining (J), and constant (C) genes on a recent ferret reference genome assembly. We designed new ferret-specific immune repertoire profiling assays by targeting positions in constant regions without allelic diversity across 11 ferret genome assemblies and experimentally validated them using a commercially compatible single-cell-based platform. These improved resources and assays will enable future studies to fully capture ferret immune repertoire diversity.IMPORTANCEDomestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) are an increasingly common model organism to study human respiratory diseases such as influenza infections. However, researchers lack ferret-specific reagents and resources to study the immune system and immune response in ferrets. In this study, we developed comprehensive ferret immune repertoire reference resources and assays, which will enable more accurate analyses of the ferret immune system in the future.

HTS and scRNA-seq revealed that the location and RSS quality of the mammalian TRBV and TRBJ genes impact biased rearrangement

The quality of Recombination signal sequences (RSSs), location, and genetics of mammalian V, D, and J genes synergistically affect the recombination frequency of genes; however, the specific regulatory mechanism and efficiency have not been elucidated. By taking advantage of single-cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) and high-throughput sequencing (HTS) to investigate V(D)J rearrangement characteristics in the CDR3 repertoire, we found that the distal and proximal V genes (or J genes) "to D" gene were involved in rearrangement significantly more frequently than the middle V genes (or J genes) in the TRB locus among various species, including Primates (human and rhesus monkey), Rodentia (BALB/c, C57BL/6, and Kunming mice), Artiodactyla (buffalo), and Chiroptera (Rhinolophus affinis). The RSS quality of the V and J genes affected their frequency in rearrangement to varying degrees, especially when the V-RSSs with recombination signal information content (RIC) score < -45 significantly reduced the recombination frequency of the V gene. The V and J genes that were "away from D" had the dual advantages of recombinant structural accessibility and relatively high-quality RSSs, which promoted their preferential utilization in rearrangement. The quality of J-RSSs formed during mammalian evolution was apparently greater than that of V-RSSs, and the D-J distance was obviously shorter than that of V-D, which may be one of the reasons for guaranteeing that the "D-to-J preceding V-to-DJ rule" occurred when rearranged. This study provides a novel perspective on the mechanism and efficiency of V-D-J rearrangement in the mammalian TRB locus, as well as the biased utilization characteristics and application of V and J genes in the initial CDR3 repertoire.

RAGging on recombination signal sequence strength for diffusion-mediated recombination

In this article, we discuss new insights into the distinct mechanisms for V(D)J recombination for different immunoglobulin loci. This follows the recent revelation that recombination signal sequences (RSS) within the IGKV locus have evolved to be more efficient mediators of recombination activating gene (RAG) recombination compared to the same elements in the IGH locus. This difference in RSS strength is proposed to be driven by different molecular mechanisms for RAG-mediated recombination between the two loci.

Molecular basis for differential Igk versus Igh V(D)J joining mechanisms

In developing B cells, V(D)J recombination assembles exons encoding IgH and Igκ variable regions from hundreds of gene segments clustered across Igh and Igk loci. V, D and J gene segments are flanked by conserved recombination signal sequences (RSSs) that target RAG endonuclease1. RAG orchestrates Igh V(D)J recombination upon capturing a JH-RSS within the JH-RSS-based recombination centre1-3 (RC). JH-RSS orientation programmes RAG to scan upstream D- and VH-containing chromatin that is presented in a linear manner by cohesin-mediated loop extrusion4-7. During Igh scanning, RAG robustly utilizes only D-RSSs or VH-RSSs in convergent (deletional) orientation with JH-RSSs4-7. However, for Vκ-to-Jκ joining, RAG utilizes Vκ-RSSs from deletional- and inversional-oriented clusters8, inconsistent with linear scanning2. Here we characterize the Vκ-to-Jκ joining mechanism. Igk undergoes robust primary and secondary rearrangements9,10, which confounds scanning assays. We therefore engineered cells to undergo only primary Vκ-to-Jκ rearrangements and found that RAG scanning from the primary Jκ-RC terminates just 8 kb upstream within the CTCF-site-based Sis element11. Whereas Sis and the Jκ-RC barely interacted with the Vκ locus, the CTCF-site-based Cer element12 4 kb upstream of Sis interacted with various loop extrusion impediments across the locus. Similar to VH locus inversion7, DJH inversion abrogated VH-to-DJH joining; yet Vκ locus or Jκ inversion allowed robust Vκ-to-Jκ joining. Together, these experiments implicated loop extrusion in bringing Vκ segments near Cer for short-range diffusion-mediated capture by RC-based RAG. To identify key mechanistic elements for diffusional V(D)J recombination in Igk versus Igh, we assayed Vκ-to-JH and D-to-Jκ rearrangements in hybrid Igh-Igk loci generated by targeted chromosomal translocations, and pinpointed remarkably strong Vκ and Jκ RSSs. Indeed, RSS replacements in hybrid or normal Igk and Igh loci confirmed the ability of Igk-RSSs to promote robust diffusional joining compared with Igh-RSSs. We propose that Igk evolved strong RSSs to mediate diffusional Vκ-to-Jκ joining, whereas Igh evolved weaker RSSs requisite for modulating VH joining by RAG-scanning impediments.

Unraveling the chicken T cell repertoire with enhanced genome annotation

T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire sequencing has emerged as a powerful tool for understanding the diversity and functionality of T cells within the host immune system. Yet, the chicken TCR repertoire remains poorly understood due to incomplete genome annotation of the TCR loci, despite the importance of chickens in agriculture and as an immunological model. Here, we addressed this critical issue by employing 5' rapid amplification of complementary DNA ends (5'RACE) TCR repertoire sequencing with molecular barcoding of complementary DNA (cDNA) molecules. Simultaneously, we enhanced the genome annotation of TCR Variable (V), Diversity (D, only present in β and δ loci) and Joining (J) genes in the chicken genome. To enhance the efficiency of TCR annotations, we developed VJ-gene-finder, an algorithm designed to extract VJ gene candidates from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences. Using this tool, we achieved a comprehensive annotation of all known chicken TCR loci, including the α/δ locus on chromosome 27. Evolutionary analysis revealed that each locus evolved separately by duplication of long homology units. To define the baseline TCR diversity in healthy chickens and to demonstrate the feasibility of the approach, we characterized the splenic α/β/γ/δ TCR repertoire. Analysis of the repertoires revealed preferential usage of specific V and J combinations in all chains, while the overall features were characteristic of unbiased repertoires. We observed moderate levels of shared complementarity-determining region 3 (CDR3) clonotypes among individual birds within the α and γ chain repertoires, including the most frequently occurring clonotypes. However, the β and δ repertoires were predominantly unique to each bird. Taken together, our TCR repertoire analysis allowed us to decipher the composition, diversity, and functionality of T cells in chickens. This work not only represents a significant step towards understanding avian T cell biology, but will also shed light on host-pathogen interactions, vaccine development, and the evolutionary history of avian immunology.

An updated definition of V(D)J recombination signal sequences revealed by high-throughput recombination assays

In the adaptive immune system, V(D)J recombination initiates the production of a diverse antigen receptor repertoire in developing B and T cells. Recombination activating proteins, RAG1 and RAG2 (RAG1/2), catalyze V(D)J recombination by cleaving adjacent to recombination signal sequences (RSSs) that flank antigen receptor gene segments. Previous studies defined the consensus RSS as containing conserved heptamer and nonamer sequences separated by a less conserved 12 or 23 base-pair spacer sequence. However, many RSSs deviate from the consensus sequence. Here, we developed a cell-based, massively parallel assay to evaluate V(D)J recombination activity on thousands of RSSs where the 12-RSS heptamer and adjoining spacer region contained randomized sequences. While the consensus heptamer sequence (CACAGTG) was marginally preferred, V(D)J recombination was highly active on a wide range of non-consensus sequences. Select purine/pyrimidine motifs that may accommodate heptamer unwinding in the RAG1/2 active site were generally preferred. In addition, while different coding flanks and nonamer sequences affected recombination efficiency, the relative dependency on the purine/pyrimidine motifs in the RSS heptamer remained unchanged. Our results suggest RAG1/2 specificity for RSS heptamers is primarily dictated by DNA structural features dependent on purine/pyrimidine pattern, and to a lesser extent, RAG:RSS base-specific interactions.

Different classes of genomic inserts contribute to human antibody diversity

The enormous diversity of antibodies is a key element to combat infections. Antibodies containing pathogen receptors were a surprising discovery that contrasted antibody diversification through classic recombination events. However, such insert-containing antibodies were thus far exclusively detected in African individuals exposed to malaria parasites and were identified as screening byproducts or through hypothesis-driven search. The prevalence and complexity of insertion events remained elusive. In this study, we devise an unbiased, systematic approach to identify inserts in the human antibody repertoire. We show that inserts from distant genomic regions occur in the majority of donors and are independent of Plasmodium falciparum preexposure. Our findings suggest that four distinct classes of insertion events contribute diversity to the human antibody repertoire.

Recombination of antibody genes in B cells can involve distant genomic loci and contribute a foreign antigen-binding element to form hybrid antibodies with broad reactivity for Plasmodium falciparum. So far, antibodies containing the extracellular domain of the LAIR1 and LILRB1 receptors represent unique examples of cross-chromosomal antibody diversification. Here, we devise a technique to profile non-VDJ elements from distant genes in antibody transcripts. Independent of the preexposure of donors to malaria parasites, non-VDJ inserts were detected in 80% of individuals at frequencies of 1 in 10⁴ to 10⁵ B cells. We detected insertions in heavy, but not in light chain or T cell receptor transcripts. We classify the insertions into four types depending on the insert origin and destination: 1) mitochondrial and 2) nuclear DNA inserts integrated at VDJ junctions; 3) inserts originating from telomere proximal genes; and 4) fragile sites incorporated between J-to-constant junctions. The latter class of inserts was exclusively found in memory and in in vitro activated B cells, while all other classes were already detected in naïve B cells. More than 10% of inserts preserved the reading frame, including transcripts with signs of antigen-driven affinity maturation. Collectively, our study unravels a mechanism of antibody diversification that is layered on the classical V(D)J and switch recombination.

Intra-Vκ Cluster Recombination Shapes the Ig Kappa Locus Repertoire

During V(D)J recombination, RAG proteins introduce DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) at recombination signal sequences (RSSs) that contain either 12- or 23-nt spacer regions. Coordinated 12/23 cleavage predicts that DSBs at variable (V) gene segments should equal the level of breakage at joining (J) segments. Contrary to this, here we report abundant RAG-dependent DSBs at multiple Vκ gene segments independent of V-J rearrangement. We find that a large fraction of Vκ gene segments are flanked not only by a bone-fide 12 spacer but also an overlapping, 23-spacer flipped RSS. These compatible pairs of RSSs mediate recombination and deletion inside the Vκ cluster even in the complete absence of Jκ gene segments and support a V(D)J recombination center (RC) independent of the conventional Jκ-centered RC. We propose an improved model of Vκ-Jκ repertoire formation by incorporating these surprisingly frequent, evolutionarily conserved intra-Vκ cluster recombination events.

Sequence-dependent dynamics of synthetic and endogenous RSSs in V(D)J recombination

Developing lymphocytes of jawed vertebrates cleave and combine distinct gene segments to assemble antigen-receptor genes. This process called V(D)J recombination that involves the RAG recombinase binding and cutting recombination signal sequences (RSSs) composed of conserved heptamer and nonamer sequences flanking less well-conserved 12- or 23-bp spacers. Little quantitative information is known about the contributions of individual RSS positions over the course of the RAG-RSS interaction. We employ a single-molecule method known as tethered particle motion to track the formation, lifetime and cleavage of individual RAG-12RSS-23RSS paired complexes (PCs) for numerous synthetic and endogenous 12RSSs. We reveal that single-bp changes, including in the 12RSS spacer, can significantly and selectively alter PC formation or the probability of RAG-mediated cleavage in the PC. We find that some rarely used endogenous gene segments can be mapped directly to poor RAG binding on their adjacent 12RSSs. Finally, we find that while abrogating RSS nicking with Ca2+ leads to substantially shorter PC lifetimes, analysis of the complete lifetime distributions of any 12RSS even on this reduced system reveals that the process of exiting the PC involves unidentified molecular details whose involvement in RAG-RSS dynamics are crucial to quantitatively capture kinetics in V(D)J recombination.

Germline DNA Retention in Murine and Human Rearranged T Cell Receptor Gene Coding Joints: Alternative Recombination Signal Sequences and V(D)J Recombinase Errors

The genes coding for the antigenic T cell receptor (TR) subunits are assembled in thymocytes from discrete V, D, and J genes by a site-specific recombination process. A tight control of this activity is required to prevent potentially detrimental recombination events. V, D, and J genes are flanked by semi-conserved nucleotide motives called recombination signal sequences (RSSs). V(D)J recombination is initiated by the precise introduction of a DNA double-strand break exactly at the border of the genes and their RSSs by the RAG recombinase. RSSs are therefore physically separated from the coding region of the genes before assembly of a rearranged TR gene. During a high throughput profiling of TRB genes in mice, we identified rearranged TRB genes in which part or all of a flanking RSS was retained in V-D or D-J coding joints. In some instances, this retention of germline DNA resulted from the use of an upstream alternative RSS. However, we also identified TRB sequences where retention of germline DNA occurred in the absence of alternative RSS, suggesting that RAG activity was mis-targeted during recombination. Similar events were also identified in human rearranged TRB and TRG genes. The use of alternative RSSs during V(D)J recombination illustrates the complexity of RAG-RSSs interactions during V(D)J recombination. While the frequency of errors resulting from mis-targeted RAG activity is very low, we believe that these RAG errors may be at the origin of oncogenic translocations and are a threat for genetic stability in developing lymphocytes.

Reconstruction of rearranged T-cell receptor loci by whole genome and transcriptome sequencing gives insights into the initial steps of T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia

T-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (T-PLL) is an aggressive tumor with leukemic presentation of mature T-lymphocytes. Here, we aimed at characterizing the initial events in the molecular pathogenesis of T-PLL and particularly, at determining the point in T-cell differentiation when the hallmark oncogenic events, that is, inv(14)(q11q32)/t(14;14)(q11;q32) and t(X;14)(q28;q11) occur. To this end, we mined whole genome and transcriptome sequencing data of 17 and 11 T-PLL cases, respectively. Mapping of the 14q32.1 locus breakpoints identified only TCL1A, which was moreover significantly overexpressed in T-PLL as compared to benign CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells, as the only common oncogenic target of aberrations. In cases with t(14;14), the breakpoints mapped telomeric and in cases with inv(14) centromeric or in the 3'-untranslated region of TCL1A. Regarding the T-cell receptor alpha (TRA) locus-TCL1A breakpoint junctions, all 17 breakpoints involved recombination signal sequences and 15 junctions contained nontemplated (N-) nucleotides. All T-PLL cases studied carried in-frame TRA rearrangements on the intact allele, which skewed significantly toward usage of distal/central TRAV/TRAJ gene segments as compared to the illegitimate TRA rearrangements. Our findings suggest that the oncogenic TRA-TCL1A/MTCP1 rearrangements in T-PLL occur during opening of the TRA locus, that is, during the progression from CD4+ immature single positive to early double positive thymocyte stage, just before physiologic TCL1A expression is silenced. The cell carrying such an oncogenic event continues maturation and rearranges the second TRA allele to achieve a functional T-cell receptor. Thereafter, it switches off RAG and DNTT expression in line with the mature T-cell phenotype at presentation of T-PLL.

Cross-Reactivity to Kynureninase Tolerizes B Cells That Express the HIV-1 Broadly Neutralizing Antibody 2F5

2F5 is an HIV-1 broadly neutralizing Ab that also binds the autoantigens kynureninase (KYNU) and anionic lipids. Generation of 2F5-like Abs is proscribed by immune tolerance, but it is unclear which autospecificity is responsible. We sampled the BCR repertoire of 2F5 knock-in mice before and after the first and second tolerance checkpoints. Nearly all small pre-B (precheckpoint) and 35-70% of anergic peripheral B cells (postcheckpoint) expressed the 2F5 BCR and maintained KYNU, lipid, and HIV-1 gp41 reactivity. In contrast, all postcheckpoint mature follicular (MF) B cells had undergone L chain editing that purged KYNU and gp41 binding but left lipid reactivity largely intact. We conclude that specificity for KYNU is the primary driver of tolerization of 2F5-expressing B cells. The MF and anergic B cell populations favored distinct collections of editor L chains; surprisingly, however, MF and anergic B cells also frequently expressed identical BCRs. These results imply that BCR autoreactivity is the primary determinant of whether a developing B cell enters the MF or anergic compartments, with a secondary role for stochastic factors that slightly mix the two pools. Our study provides mechanistic insights into how immunological tolerance impairs humoral responses to HIV-1 and supports activation of anergic B cells as a potential method for HIV-1 vaccination.

The fundamental role of chromatin loop extrusion in physiological V(D)J recombination

RAG endonuclease initiates IgH locus (Igh) V(D)J assembly in progenitor (pro)-B cells by joining Ds to J_Hs, before joining upstream V_Hs to DJ_H intermediates¹. In mouse pro-B cells, the CTCF-binding element (CBE)-anchored chromatin loop domain² at the 3’end of Igh contains an internal sub-domain spanning the 5’CBE anchor (IGCR1)³, the D_Hs, and a RAG-bound recombination center (RC)⁴. The RC comprises J_H-proximal D (DQ52), 4 J_Hs, and the intronic enhancer (“iEμ”)⁵. Robust RAG cleavage is restricted to paired V(D)J segments flanked by complementary recombination signal sequences (12RSSs and 23RSSs)⁶. Ds are flanked downstream and upstream by 12RSSs that, respectively, mediate deletional joining with convergently-oriented J_H-23RSSs and V_H-23RSSs⁶. Despite 12/23 compatibility, inversional D to J_H joining via upstream D-12RSSs is rare^7,8. Plasmid-based assays attributed lack of inversional D to J_H joining to sequence-based preference for downstream D-12RSSs⁹, as opposed to putative linear scanning mechanisms^10,11. Given recent findings that RAG linearly scans convergent CBE-anchored chromatin loops^4,12-14, potentially formed by cohesin-mediated loop extrusion^15-18, we revisited a scanning role. Here, we report that J_H-23RSS chromosomal orientation programs RC-bound RAG to linearly scan upstream chromatin in the 3’Igh sub-domain for convergently-oriented D-12RSSs and, thereby, to mediate deletional joining of all Ds, except RC-based DQ52 that joins by a diffusion-related mechanism. In a DQ52-based RC, formed in the absence of J_Hs, RAG bound by the downstream DQ52-RSS scans the downstream constant region exon-containing 3’Igh sub-domain in which scanning can be impeded by targeted nuclease-dead Cas9 (dCas9) binding, by transcription through repetitive Igh switch sequences, and by the 3’Igh CBE-based loop anchor. Notably, each scanning impediment focally increases RAG activity on potential substrate sequences within the impeded region. High resolution mapping of RC chromatin interactions reveals that such focal RAG targeting is associated with corresponding impediments to the loop extrusion process that drives chromatin past RC-bound RAG.

Local Chromatin Features Including PU.1 and IKAROS Binding and H3K4 Methylation Shape the Repertoire of Immunoglobulin Kappa Genes Chosen for V(D)J Recombination

V(D)J recombination is essential for the generation of diverse antigen receptor (AgR) repertoires. In B cells, immunoglobulin kappa (Igκ) light chain recombination follows immunoglobulin heavy chain (Igh) recombination. We recently developed the DNA-based VDJ-seq assay for the unbiased quantitation of Igh VH and DH repertoires. Integration of VDJ-seq data with genome-wide datasets revealed that two chromatin states at the recombination signal sequence (RSS) of VH genes are highly predictive of recombination in mouse pro-B cells. It is unknown whether local chromatin states contribute to Vκ gene choice during Igκ recombination. Here we adapt VDJ-seq to profile the Igκ VκJκ repertoire and present a comprehensive readout in mouse pre-B cells, revealing highly variable Vκ gene usage. Integration with genome-wide datasets for histone modifications, DNase hypersensitivity, transcription factor binding and germline transcription identified PU.1 binding at the RSS, which was unimportant for Igh, as highly predictive of whether a Vκ gene will recombine or not, suggesting that it plays a binary, all-or-nothing role, priming genes for recombination. Thereafter, the frequency with which these genes recombine was shaped both by the presence and level of enrichment of several other chromatin features, including H3K4 methylation and IKAROS binding. Moreover, in contrast to the Igh locus, the chromatin landscape of the promoter, as well as of the RSS, contributes to Vκ gene recombination. Thus, multiple facets of local chromatin features explain much of the variation in Vκ gene usage. Together, these findings reveal shared and divergent roles for epigenetic features and transcription factors in AgR V(D)J recombination and provide avenues for further investigation of chromatin signatures that may underpin V(D)J-mediated chromosomal translocations.

Epigenetic modifications of the VH region after DJH recombination in Pro-B cells

The variable region of murine immunoglobulin heavy chain (Igh) is assembled by sequential D_H -J_H and V_H -DJ_H recombination. The accessibility of the Igh locus determines the order of rearrangement. Because of the large number of V_H genes and the lack of a suitable model, the epigenetic modifications of V_H genes after DJ_H recombination have not previously been characterized. Here, we employed two v-Abl pro-B cell lines, in which the Igh locus is in germline and DJ_H -recombined configurations, respectively. The DJ_H junction displays the characteristics of a recombination centre, such as high levels of activation-associated histone modifications and recombination-activating gene protein (RAG) binding in DJ_H -rearranged pro-B cells, which extend the recombination centre model proposed for the germline Igh locus. The different domains of the V_H region have distinct epigenetic characteristics after DJ_H recombination. Distal V_H genes have higher levels of active histone modifications, germline transcription and Pax5 binding, and good quality recombination signal sequences. Proximal V_H genes are relatively close to the DJ_H recombination centre, which partially compensates for the low levels of the above active epigenetic modifications. DJ_H recombination centre might serve as a cis-acting element to regulate the accessibility of the V_H region. Furthermore, we demonstrate that RAG weakly binds to functional V_H genes, which is the first detailed assessment of RAG dynamic binding to V_H genes. We provide a way for V_H -DJ_H recombination in which the V_H gene is brought into close proximity with the DJ_H recombination centre for RAG binding by a Pax5-dependent chromosomal compaction event, and held in this position for subsequent cleavage and V_H -DJ_H joining.

RAG1/2 induces genomic insertions by mobilizing DNA into RAG1/2-independent breaks

Rommel et al. reveal a novel RAG1/2-mediated insertion pathway, which has the potential to destabilize the lymphocyte genome and shares features with DNA insertions observed in human cancer.

The RAG recombinase (RAG1/2) plays an essential role in adaptive immunity by mediating V(D)J recombination in developing lymphocytes. In contrast, aberrant RAG1/2 activity promotes lymphocyte malignancies by causing chromosomal translocations and DNA deletions at cancer genes. RAG1/2 can also induce genomic DNA insertions by transposition and trans-V(D)J recombination, but only few such putative events have been documented in vivo. We used next-generation sequencing techniques to examine chromosomal rearrangements in primary murine B cells and discovered that RAG1/2 causes aberrant insertions by releasing cleaved antibody gene fragments that subsequently reintegrate into DNA breaks induced on a heterologous chromosome. We confirmed that RAG1/2 also mobilizes genomic DNA into independent physiological breaks by identifying similar insertions in human lymphoma and leukemia. Our findings reveal a novel RAG1/2-mediated insertion pathway distinct from DNA transposition and trans-V(D)J recombination that destabilizes the genome and shares features with reported oncogenic DNA insertions.

RAG Recombinase as a Selective Pressure for Genome Evolution

The RAG recombinase is a domesticated transposable element co-opted in jawed vertebrates to drive the process of the so-called V(D)J recombination, which is the hallmark of the adaptive immune system to produce antigen receptors. RAG targets, namely, the Recombination Signal Sequences (RSS), are rather long and degenerated sequences, which highlights the ability of the recombinase to interact with a wide range of target sequences, including outside of antigen receptor loci. The recognition of such cryptic targets by the recombinase threatens genome integrity by promoting aberrant DNA recombination, as observed in lymphoid malignancies. Genomes evolution resulting from RAG acquisition is an ongoing discussion, in particular regarding the counter-selection of sequences resembling the RSS and the modifications of epigenetic regulation at these potential cryptic sites. Here, we describe a new bioinformatics tool to map potential RAG targets in all jawed vertebrates. We show that our REcombination Classifier (REC) outperforms the currently available tool and is suitable for full genomes scans from species other than human and mouse. Using the REC, we document a reduction in density of potential RAG targets at the transcription start sites of genes co-expressed with the rag genes and marked with high levels of the trimethylation of the lysine 4 of the histone 3 (H3K4me3), which correlates with the retention of functional RAG activity after the horizontal transfer.

Regulated large-scale nucleosome density patterns and precise nucleosome positioning correlate with V(D)J recombination

We show that the physical distribution of nucleosomes at antigen receptor loci is subject to regulated cell type-specific and lineage-specific positioning and correlates with the accessibility of these gene segments to recombination. At the Ig heavy chain locus (IgH), a nucleosome in pro-B cells is generally positioned over each IgH variable (VH) coding segment, directly adjacent to the recombination signal sequence (RSS), placing the RSS in a position accessible to the recombination activating gene (RAG) recombinase. These changes result in establishment of a specific chromatin organization at the RSS that facilitates accessibility of the genomic DNA for the RAG recombinase. In contrast, in mouse embryonic fibroblasts the coding segment is depleted of nucleosomes, which instead cover the RSS, thereby rendering it inaccessible. Pro-T cells exhibit a pattern intermediate between pro-B cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts. We also find large-scale variations of nucleosome density over hundreds of kilobases, delineating chromosomal domains within IgH, in a cell type-dependent manner. These findings suggest that developmentally regulated changes in nucleosome location and occupancy, in addition to the known chromatin modifications, play a fundamental role in regulating V(D)J recombination. Nucleosome positioning-which has previously been observed to vary locally at individual enhancers and promoters-may be a more general mechanism by which cells can regulate the accessibility of the genome during development, at scales ranging from several hundred base pairs to many kilobases.

DNA Breaks and End Resection Measured Genome-wide by End Sequencing

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) arise during physiological transcription, DNA replication, and antigen receptor diversification. Mistargeting or misprocessing of DSBs can result in pathological structural variation and mutation. Here we describe a sensitive method (END-seq) to monitor DNA end resection and DSBs genome-wide at base-pair resolution in vivo. We utilized END-seq to determine the frequency and spectrum of restriction-enzyme-, zinc-finger-nuclease-, and RAG-induced DSBs. Beyond sequence preference, chromatin features dictate the repertoire of these genome-modifying enzymes. END-seq can detect at least one DSB per cell among 10,000 cells not harboring DSBs, and we estimate that up to one out of 60 cells contains off-target RAG cleavage. In addition to site-specific cleavage, we detect DSBs distributed over extended regions during immunoglobulin class-switch recombination. Thus, END-seq provides a snapshot of DNA ends genome-wide, which can be utilized for understanding genome-editing specificities and the influence of chromatin on DSB pathway choice.

Illegitimate RAG-mediated recombination events are involved in IKZF1 Δ3-6 deletion in BCR-ABL1 lymphoblastic leukaemia

Breakpoint cluster region-Abelson murine leukaemia viral oncogene homologue 1 (BCR-ABL1), encoded by the Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome, is the characteristic of chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) and a subset of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). We demonstrated that expression of the Ik6 transcript, which lacked exons 3-6, was observed exclusively in BCR-ABL1(+) B ALL and lymphoid blast crisis CML (BC-CML) patients harbouring the IKZF1 Δ3-6 deletion. To confirm the hypothesis that illegitimate recombination activating gene protein (RAG)-mediated recombination events are involved in IKZF1 Δ3-6 deletion in BCR-ABL1 lymphoblastic leukaemia, we first demonstrated that the expression rates of RAG1 and RAG2, collectively called RAG, were higher in ALL and BC-CML (lymphoid). Notably, analysis of relationships among RAG, BCR-ABL1 and Ikaros 6 (Ik6) showed that Ik6 can be generated only if RAG and BCR-ABL1 are co-existing. The sequencing data showed that the deleted segments of introns 2 and 6 contained cryptic recombination signal sequences (cRSSs) and frequently had non-template nucleotides inserted between breakpoints. Furthermore, we used chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) technology and demonstrated that the sequences directly flanking IKZF1 Δ3-6 deletion breakpoints have significantly higher levels of histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) modifications. Overall, RAG expression, good-quality cRSS and a specific chromatin modification, H3K4me3, satisfy the conditions of RAG's off-target effects on IKZF1. Our work provides evidence for RAG-mediated IKZF1 Δ3-6 deletion. Our results raise the prospect that RAG is a valuable biomarker in disease surveillance. Dissecting the contribution of RAG should not only provide valuable mechanistic insights, but will also lead to a new therapeutic direction.

RAG1 targeting in the genome is dominated by chromatin interactions mediated by the non-core regions of RAG1 and RAG2

The RAG1/RAG2 endonuclease initiates V(D)J recombination at antigen receptor loci but also binds to thousands of places outside of these loci. RAG2 localizes directly to lysine 4 trimethylated histone 3 (H3K4me3) through a plant homeodomain (PHD) finger. The relative contribution of RAG2-dependent and RAG1-intrinsic mechanisms in determining RAG1 binding patterns is not known. Through analysis of deep RAG1 ChIP-seq data, we provide a quantitative description of the forces underlying genome-wide targeting of RAG1. Surprisingly, sequence-specific DNA binding contributes minimally to RAG1 targeting outside of antigen receptor loci. Instead, RAG1 binding is driven by two distinct modes of interaction with chromatin: the first is driven by H3K4me3, promoter-focused and dependent on the RAG2 PHD, and the second is defined by H3K27Ac, enhancer-focused and dependent on ‘non-core’ portions of RAG1. Based on this and additional chromatin and genomic features, we formulated a predictive model of RAG1 targeting to the genome. RAG1 binding sites predicted by our model correlate well with observed patterns of RAG1-mediated breaks in human pro-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Overall, this study provides an integrative model for RAG1 genome-wide binding and off-target activity and reveals a novel role for the RAG1 non-core region in RAG1 targeting.

Two Mutually Exclusive Local Chromatin States Drive Efficient V(D)J Recombination

Variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) (V(D)J) recombination is the first determinant of antigen receptor diversity. Understanding how recombination is regulated requires a comprehensive, unbiased readout of V gene usage. We have developed VDJ sequencing (VDJ-seq), a DNA-based next-generation-sequencing technique that quantitatively profiles recombination products. We reveal a 200-fold range of recombination efficiency among recombining V genes in the primary mouse Igh repertoire. We used machine learning to integrate these data with local chromatin profiles to identify combinatorial patterns of epigenetic features that associate with active V_H gene recombination. These features localize downstream of V_H genes and are excised by recombination, revealing a class of cis-regulatory element that governs recombination, distinct from expression. We detect two mutually exclusive chromatin signatures at these elements, characterized by CTCF/RAD21 and PAX5/IRF4, which segregate with the evolutionary history of associated V_H genes. Thus, local chromatin signatures downstream of V_H genes provide an essential layer of regulation that determines recombination efficiency.

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VDJ-seq enables precise quantification of antibody V(D)J recombination products

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Two distinct cis-regulatory designs characterize actively recombining V genes

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Putative recombination regulatory elements map downstream of mouse Igh V genes

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Recombination regulatory architecture reflects the V genes’ evolutionary history

Off-Target V(D)J Recombination Drives Lymphomagenesis and Is Escalated by Loss of the Rag2 C Terminus

Genome-wide analysis of thymic lymphomas from Tp53(-/-) mice with wild-type or C-terminally truncated Rag2 revealed numerous off-target, RAG-mediated DNA rearrangements. A significantly higher fraction of these errors mutated known and suspected oncogenes/tumor suppressor genes than did sporadic rearrangements (p < 0.0001). This tractable mouse model recapitulates recent findings in human pre-B ALL and allows comparison of wild-type and mutant RAG2. Recurrent, RAG-mediated deletions affected Notch1, Pten, Ikzf1, Jak1, Phlda1, Trat1, and Agpat9. Rag2 truncation substantially increased the frequency of off-target V(D)J recombination. The data suggest that interactions between Rag2 and a specific chromatin modification, H3K4me3, support V(D)J recombination fidelity. Oncogenic effects of off-target rearrangements created by this highly regulated recombinase may need to be considered in design of site-specific nucleases engineered for genome modification.

Recruitment of RAG1 and RAG2 to Chromatinized DNA during V(D)J Recombination

V(D)J recombination is initiated by the binding of the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins to recombination signal sequences (RSSs) that consist of conserved heptamer and nonamer sequences separated by a spacer of either 12 or 23 bp. Here, we used RAG-inducible pro-B v-Abl cell lines in conjunction with chromatin immunoprecipitation to better understand the protein and RSS requirements for RAG recruitment to chromatin. Using a catalytic mutant form of RAG1 to prevent recombination, we did not observe cooperation between RAG1 and RAG2 in their recruitment to endogenous Jκ gene segments over a 48-h time course. Using retroviral recombination substrates, we found that RAG1 was recruited inefficiently to substrates lacking an RSS or containing a single RSS, better to substrates with two 12-bp RSSs (12RSSs) or two 23-bp RSSs (23RSSs), and more efficiently to a substrate with a 12/23RSS pair. RSS mutagenesis demonstrated a major role for the nonamer element in RAG1 binding, and correspondingly, a cryptic RSS consisting of a repeat of CA dinucleotides, which poorly re-creates the nonamer, was ineffective in recruiting RAG1. Our findings suggest that 12RSS-23RSS cooperation (the "12/23 rule") is important not only for regulating RAG-mediated DNA cleavage but also for the efficiency of RAG recruitment to chromatin.

RAG Represents a Widespread Threat to the Lymphocyte Genome

The RAG1 endonuclease, together with its cofactor RAG2, is essential for V(D)J recombination but is a potent threat to genome stability. The sources of RAG1 mis-targeting and the mechanisms that have evolved to suppress it are poorly understood. Here, we report that RAG1 associates with chromatin at thousands of active promoters and enhancers in the genome of developing lymphocytes. The mouse and human genomes appear to have responded by reducing the abundance of "cryptic" recombination signals near RAG1 binding sites. This depletion operates specifically on the RSS heptamer, whereas nonamers are enriched at RAG1 binding sites. Reversing this RAG-driven depletion of cleavage sites by insertion of strong recombination signals creates an ectopic hub of RAG-mediated V(D)J recombination and chromosomal translocations. Our findings delineate rules governing RAG binding in the genome, identify areas at risk of RAG-mediated damage, and highlight the evolutionary struggle to accommodate programmed DNA damage in developing lymphocytes.

Regulation and Evolution of the RAG Recombinase

The modular, noncontiguous architecture of the antigen receptor genes necessitates their assembly through V(D)J recombination. This program of DNA breakage and rejoining occurs during early lymphocyte development, and depends on the RAG1 and RAG2 proteins, whose collaborative endonuclease activity targets specific DNA motifs enriched in the antigen receptor loci. This essential gene shuffling reaction requires lymphocytes to traverse several developmental stages wherein DNA breakage is tolerated, while minimizing the expense to overall genome integrity. Thus, RAG activity is subject to stringent temporal and spatial regulation. The RAG proteins themselves also contribute autoregulatory properties that coordinate their DNA cleavage activity with target chromatin structure, cell cycle status, and DNA repair pathways. Even so, lapses in regulatory restriction of RAG activity are apparent in the aberrant V(D)J recombination events that underlie many lymphomas. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the RAG endonuclease, its widespread binding in the lymphocyte genome, its noncleavage activities that restrain its enzymatic potential, and the growing evidence of its evolution from an ancient transposase.

The proximal J kappa germline-transcript promoter facilitates receptor editing through control of ordered recombination

V(D)J recombination creates antibody light chain diversity by joining a Vκ gene segment with one of four Jκ segments. Two Jκ germline-transcript (GT) promoters control Vκ-Jκ joining, but the mechanisms that govern Jκ choice are unclear. Here, we show in gene-targeted mice that the proximal GT promoter helps targeting rearrangements to Jκ1 by preventing premature DNA breaks at Jκ2. Consequently, cells lacking the proximal GT promoter show a biased utilization of downstream Jκ segments, resulting in a diminished potential for receptor editing. Surprisingly, the proximal—in contrast to the distal—GT promoter is transcriptionally inactive prior to Igκ recombination, indicating that its role in Jκ choice is independent of classical promoter function. Removal of the proximal GT promoter increases H3K4me3 levels at Jκ segments, suggesting that this promoter could act as a suppressor of recombination by limiting chromatin accessibility to RAG. Our findings identify the first cis-element critical for Jκ choice and demonstrate that ordered Igκ recombination facilitates receptor editing.

Violation of the 12/23 rule of genomic V(D)J recombination is common in lymphocytes

V(D)J genomic recombination joins single gene segments to encode an extensive repertoire of antigen receptor specificities in T and B lymphocytes. This process initiates with double-stranded breaks adjacent to conserved recombination signal sequences that contain either 12- or 23-nucleotide spacer regions. Only recombination between signal sequences with unequal spacers results in productive coding genes, a phenomenon known as the “12/23 rule.” Here we present two novel genomic tools that allow the capture and analysis of immune locus rearrangements from whole thymic and splenic tissues using second-generation sequencing. Further, we provide strong evidence that the 12/23 rule of genomic recombination is frequently violated under physiological conditions, resulting in unanticipated hybrid recombinations in ∼10% of Tcra excision circles. Hence, we demonstrate that strict adherence to the 12/23 rule is intrinsic neither to recombination signal sequences nor to the catalytic process of recombination and propose that nonclassical excision circles are liberated during the formation of antigen receptor diversity.

PTEN microdeletions in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia are caused by illegitimate RAG-mediated recombination events

Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)-inactivating mutations and/or deletions are an independent risk factor for relapse of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) patients treated on Dutch Childhood Oncology Group or German Cooperative Study Group for Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia protocols. Some monoallelic mutated or PTEN wild-type patients lack PTEN protein, implying that additional PTEN inactivation mechanisms exist. We show that PTEN is inactivated by small deletions affecting a few exons in 8% of pediatric T-ALL patients. These microdeletions were clonal in 3% and subclonal in 5% of patients. Conserved deletion breakpoints are flanked by cryptic recombination signal sequences (cRSSs) and frequently have non-template-derived nucleotides inserted in between breakpoints, pointing to an illegitimate RAG recombination-driven activity. Identified cRSSs drive RAG-dependent recombination in a reporter system as efficiently as bona fide RSSs that flank gene segments of the T-cell receptor locus. Remarkably, equivalent microdeletions were detected in thymocytes of healthy individuals. Microdeletions strongly associate with the TALLMO subtype characterized by TAL1 or LMO2 rearrangements. Primary and secondary xenotransplantation of TAL1-rearranged leukemia allowed development of leukemic subclones with newly acquired PTEN microdeletions. Ongoing RAG activity may therefore actively contribute to the acquisition of preleukemic hits, clonal diversification, and disease progression.

Illegitimate V(D)J recombination-mediated deletions in Notch1 and Bcl11b are not sufficient for extensive clonal expansion and show minimal age or sex bias in frequency or junctional processing

Illegitimate V(D)J recombination at oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes is implicated in formation of several T cell malignancies. Notch1 and Bcl11b, genes involved in developing T cell specification, selection, proliferation, and survival, were previously shown to contain hotspots for deletional illegitimate V(D)J recombination associated with radiation-induced thymic lymphoma. Interestingly, these deletions were also observed in wild-type animals. In this study, we conducted frequency, clonality, and junctional processing analyses of Notch1 and Bcl11b deletions during mouse development and compared results to published analyses of authentic V(D)J rearrangements at the T cell receptor beta (TCRβ) locus and illegitimate V(D)J deletions observed at the human, nonimmune HPRT1 locus not involved in T cell malignancies. We detect deletions in Notch1 and Bcl11b in thymic and splenic T cell populations, consistent with cells bearing deletions in the circulating lymphocyte pool. Deletions in thymus can occur in utero, increase in frequency between fetal and postnatal stages, are detected at all ages examined between fetal and 7 months, exhibit only limited clonality (contrasting with previous results in radiation-sensitive mouse strains), and consistent with previous reports are more frequent in Bcl11b, partially explained by relatively high Recombination Signal Information Content (RIC) scores. Deletion junctions in Bcl11b exhibit greater germline nucleotide loss, while in Notch1 palindromic (P) nucleotides are more abundant, although average P nucleotide length is similar for both genes and consistent with results at the TCRβ locus. Non-templated (N) nucleotide insertions appear to increase between fetal and postnatal stages for Notch1, consistent with normal terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) activity; however, neonatal Bcl11b junctions contain elevated levels of N insertions. Finally, contrasting with results at the HPRT1 locus, we find no obvious age or gender bias in junctional processing, and inverted repeats at recessed coding ends (Pr nucleotides) correspond mostly to single-base additions consistent with normal TdT activity.

Deep sequencing of the murine IgH repertoire reveals complex regulation of nonrandom V gene rearrangement frequencies

A diverse Ab repertoire is formed through the rearrangement of V, D, and J segments at the IgH (Igh) loci. The C57BL/6 murine Igh locus has >100 functional VH gene segments that can recombine to a rearranged DJH. Although the nonrandom usage of VH genes is well documented, it is not clear what elements determine recombination frequency. To answer this question, we conducted deep sequencing of 5'-RACE products of the Igh repertoire in pro-B cells, amplified in an unbiased manner. Chromatin immunoprecipitation-sequencing results for several histone modifications and RNA polymerase II binding, RNA-sequencing for sense and antisense noncoding germline transcripts, and proximity to CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) and Rad21 sites were compared with the usage of individual V genes. Computational analyses assessed the relative importance of these various accessibility elements. These elements divide the Igh locus into four epigenetically and transcriptionally distinct domains, and our computational analyses reveal different regulatory mechanisms for each region. Proximal V genes are relatively devoid of active histone marks and noncoding RNA in general, but having a CTCF site near their recombination signal sequence is critical, suggesting that being positioned near the base of the chromatin loops is important for rearrangement. In contrast, distal V genes have higher levels of histone marks and noncoding RNA, which may compensate for their poorer recombination signal sequences and for being distant from CTCF sites. Thus, the Igh locus has evolved a complex system for the regulation of V(D)J rearrangement that is different for each of the four domains that comprise this locus.

A Novel Quantitative Fluorescent Reporter Assay for RAG Targets and RAG Activity

Recombination-Activating Genes (RAG) 1 and 2 form the site specific recombinase that mediates V(D)J recombination, a process of DNA editing required for lymphocyte development and responsible for their diverse repertoire of antigen receptors. Mistargeted RAG activity associates with genome alteration and is responsible for various lymphoid tumors. Moreover several non-lymphoid tumors express RAG ectopically. A practical and powerful tool to perform quantitative assessment of RAG activity and to score putative RAG-Recognition signal sequences (RSS) is required in the fields of immunology, oncology, gene therapy, and development. Here we report the detailed characterization of a novel fluorescence-based reporter of RAG activity, named GFPi, a tool that allows measuring recombination efficiency (RE) by simple flow cytometry analysis. GFPi can be produced both as a plasmid for transient transfection experiments in cell lines or as a retrovirus for stable integration in the genome, thus supporting ex vivo and in vivo studies. The GFPi assay faithfully quantified endogenous and ectopic RAG activity as tested in genetically modified fibroblasts, tumor derived cell lines, developing pre-B cells, and hematopoietic cells. The GFPi assay also successfully ranked the RE of various RSS pairs, including bona fide RSS associated with V(D)J segments, artificial consensus sequences modified or not at specific nucleotides known to affect their efficiencies, or cryptic RSS involved in RAG-dependent activation of oncogenes. Our work validates the GFPi reporter as a practical quantitative tool for the study of RAG activity and RSS efficiencies. It should turn useful for the study of RAG-mediated V(D)J and aberrant rearrangements, lineage commitment, and vertebrate evolution.

RSSsite: a reference database and prediction tool for the identification of cryptic Recombination Signal Sequences in human and murine genomes

Recombination signal sequences (RSSs) flanking V, D and J gene segments are recognized and cut by the VDJ recombinase during development of B and T lymphocytes. All RSSs are composed of seven conserved nucleotides, followed by a spacer (containing either 12 ± 1 or 23 ± 1 poorly conserved nucleotides) and a conserved nonamer. Errors in V(D)J recombination, including cleavage of cryptic RSS outside the immunoglobulin and T cell receptor loci, are associated with oncogenic translocations observed in some lymphoid malignancies. We present in this paper the RSSsite web server, which is available from the address http://www.itb.cnr.it/rss. RSSsite consists of a web-accessible database, RSSdb, for the identification of pre-computed potential RSSs, and of the related search tool, DnaGrab, which allows the scoring of potential RSSs in user-supplied sequences. This latter algorithm makes use of probability models, which can be recasted to Bayesian network, taking into account correlations between groups of positions of a sequence, developed starting from specific reference sets of RSSs. In validation laboratory experiments, we selected 33 predicted cryptic RSSs (cRSSs) from 11 chromosomal regions outside the immunoglobulin and TCR loci for functional testing.

Aberrantly resolved RAG-mediated DNA breaks in Atm-deficient lymphocytes target chromosomal breakpoints in cis

Canonical chromosomal translocations juxtaposing antigen receptor genes and oncogenes are a hallmark of many lymphoid malignancies. These translocations frequently form through the joining of DNA ends from double-strand breaks (DSBs) generated by the recombinase activating gene (RAG)-1 and -2 proteins at lymphocyte antigen receptor loci and breakpoint targets near oncogenes. Our understanding of chromosomal breakpoint target selection comes primarily from the analyses of these lesions, which are selected based on their transforming properties. RAG DSBs are rarely resolved aberrantly in wild-type developing lymphocytes. However, in ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-deficient lymphocytes, RAG breaks are frequently joined aberrantly, forming chromosomal lesions such as translocations that predispose (ATM)-deficient mice and humans to the development of lymphoid malignancies. Here, an approach that minimizes selection biases is used to isolate a large cohort of breakpoint targets of aberrantly resolved RAG DSBs in Atm-deficient lymphocytes. Analyses of this cohort revealed that frequently, the breakpoint targets for aberrantly resolved RAG breaks are other DSBs. Moreover, these nonselected lesions exhibit a bias for using breakpoints in cis, forming small chromosomal deletions, rather than breakpoints in trans, forming chromosomal translocations.

Conserved cryptic recombination signals in Vkappa gene segments are cleaved in small pre-B cells

BACKGROUND

The cleavage of recombination signals (RS) at the boundaries of immunoglobulin V, D, and J gene segments initiates the somatic generation of the antigen receptor genes expressed by B lymphocytes. RS contain a conserved heptamer and nonamer motif separated by non-conserved spacers of 12 or 23 nucleotides. Under physiologic conditions, V(D)J recombination follows the "12/23 rule" to assemble functional antigen-receptor genes, i.e., cleavage and recombination occur only between RS with dissimilar spacer types. Functional, cryptic RS (cRS) have been identified in VH gene segments; these VH cRS were hypothesized to facilitate self-tolerance by mediating VH --> VHDJH replacements. At the Igkappa locus, however, secondary, de novo rearrangements can delete autoreactive VkappaJkappa joins. Thus, under the hypothesis that V-embedded cRS are conserved to facilitate self-tolerance by mediating V-replacement rearrangements, there would be little selection for Vkappa cRS. Recent studies have demonstrated that VH cRS cleavage is only modestly more efficient than V(D)J recombination in violation of the 12/23 rule and first occurs in pro-B cells unable to interact with exogenous antigens. These results are inconsistent with a model of cRS cleavage during autoreactivity-induced VH gene replacement.

RESULTS

To test the hypothesis that cRS are absent from Vkappa gene segments, a corollary of the hypothesis that the need for tolerizing VH replacements is responsible for the selection pressure to maintain VH cRS, we searched for cRS in mouse Vkappa gene segments using a statistical model of RS. Scans of 135 mouse Vkappa gene segments revealed highly conserved cRS that were shown to be cleaved in the 103/BCL2 cell line and mouse bone marrow B cells. Analogous to results for VH cRS, we find that Vkappa cRS are conserved at multiple locations in Vkappa gene segments and are cleaved in pre-B cells.

CONCLUSION

Our results, together with those for VH cRS, support a model of cRS cleavage in which cleavage is independent of BCR-specificity. Our results are inconsistent with the hypothesis that cRS are conserved solely to support receptor editing. The extent to which these sequences are conserved, and their pattern of conservation, suggest that they may serve an as yet unidentified purpose.

Patterns of receptor revision in the immunoglobulin heavy chains of a teleost fish

H chain cDNA libraries were constructed from the RNA derived from seven different organs and tissues from the same individual catfish. Sequence analysis of >300 randomly selected clones identified clonal set members within the same or different tissues, and some of these represented mosaic or hybrid sequences. These hybrids expressed V(H) members of the same or different V(H) families within different regions of the same clone. Within some clonal sets multiple hybrids were identified, and some of these represented the products of sequential V(H) replacement events. Different experimental methods confirmed that hybrid clones identified in the cDNA library from one tissue could be reisolated in the cDNA pool or from the total RNA derived from the same or a different tissue, indicating that these hybrids likely represented the products of in vivo receptor revision events. Murine statistical recombination models were used to evaluate cryptic recombination signal sequences (cRSS), and significant cRSS pairs in the predicted V(H) donor and recipient were identified. These models supported the hypothesis that seamless revisions may have occurred via hybrid joint formation. The heptamers of the cRSS pairs were located at different locations within the coding region, and different events resulted in the replacement of one or both CDR as well as events that replaced the upstream untranslated region and the leader region. These studies provide phylogenetic evidence that receptor revision may occur in clonally expanded B cell lineages, which supports the hypothesis that additional levels of somatic H chain diversification may exist.

Characterization of arrangement and expression of the T cell receptor gamma locus in the sandbar shark

Ig and T cell receptor (TCR) genes consist of separate genomic elements, which must undergo rearrangement and joining before a functional protein can be expressed. Considerable plasticity in the genomic arrangement of these elements has occurred during the evolution of the immune system. In tetrapods, all Ig and TCR chain elements are arranged as translocons. In teleosts, the Ig heavy and TCR chains are translocons, but light chain genes may occur as clusters. However, in chondrichthyes, all of the Ig light and heavy chain genes are arranged as clusters. These clusters vary in number from <10 to several hundred, depending on isotype and species. Here, we report that the germ-line gene for the TCR gamma chain in a chondrichthyan, the sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus), is present as a single locus arranged in a classic translocon pattern. Thus, the shark utilizes 2 types of genomic arrangements, the unique cluster organization for Ig genes and the "conventional" translocon organization for TCR genes. The TCR gamma translocon contains at least 5 V region genes, 3 J segment genes, and 1 C segment. As expected, the third hypervariable segment (CDR3), formed by the rearrangement of the Vgamma and Jgamma segments, contributed the major variability in the intact V region structure. Our data also suggest that diversity may be generated by mutation in the V regions.

Leaky severe combined immunodeficiency and aberrant DNA rearrangements due to a hypomorphic RAG1 mutation

The RAG1/2 endonuclease initiates programmed DNA rearrangements in progenitor lymphocytes by generating double-strand breaks at specific recombination signal sequences. This process, known as V(D)J recombination, assembles the vastly diverse antigen receptor genes from numerous V, D, and J coding segments. In vitro biochemical and cellular transfection studies suggest that RAG1/2 may also play postcleavage roles by forming complexes with the recombining ends to facilitate DNA end processing and ligation. In the current study, we examine the in vivo consequences of a mutant form of RAG1, RAG1-S723C, that is proficient for DNA cleavage, yet exhibits defects in postcleavage complex formation and end joining in vitro. We generated a knockin mouse model harboring the RAG1-S723C hypomorphic mutation and examined the immune system in this fully in vivo setting. RAG1-S723C homozygous mice exhibit impaired lymphocyte development and decreased V(D)J rearrangements. Distinct from RAG nullizygosity, the RAG1-S723C hypomorph results in aberrant DNA double-strand breaks within rearranging loci. RAG1-S723C also predisposes to thymic lymphomas associated with chromosomal translocations in a p53 mutant background, and heterozygosity for the mutant allele accelerates age-associated immune system dysfunction. Thus, our study provides in vivo evidence that implicates aberrant RAG1/2 activity in lymphoid tumor development and premature immunosenescence.

Effective transcription factor binding site prediction using a combination of optimization, a genetic algorithm and discriminant analysis to capture distant interactions

Background

Reliable transcription factor binding site (TFBS) prediction methods are essential for computer annotation of large amount of genome sequence data. However, current methods to predict TFBSs are hampered by the high false-positive rates that occur when only sequence conservation at the core binding-sites is considered.

Results

To improve this situation, we have quantified the performance of several Position Weight Matrix (PWM) algorithms, using exhaustive approaches to find their optimal length and position. We applied these approaches to bio-medically important TFBSs involved in the regulation of cell growth and proliferation as well as in inflammatory, immune, and antiviral responses (NF-κB, ISGF3, IRF1, STAT1), obesity and lipid metabolism (PPAR, SREBP, HNF4), regulation of the steroidogenic (SF-1) and cell cycle (E2F) genes expression. We have also gained extra specificity using a method, entitled SiteGA, which takes into account structural interactions within TFBS core and flanking regions, using a genetic algorithm (GA) with a discriminant function of locally positioned dinucleotide (LPD) frequencies.

To ensure a higher confidence in our approach, we applied resampling-jackknife and bootstrap tests for the comparison, it appears that, optimized PWM and SiteGA have shown similar recognition performances. Then we applied SiteGA and optimized PWMs (both separately and together) to sequences in the Eukaryotic Promoter Database (EPD). The resulting SiteGA recognition models can now be used to search sequences for BSs using the web tool, SiteGA.

Analysis of dependencies between close and distant LPDs revealed by SiteGA models has shown that the most significant correlations are between close LPDs, and are generally located in the core (footprint) region. A greater number of less significant correlations are mainly between distant LPDs, which spanned both core and flanking regions. When SiteGA and optimized PWM models were applied together, this substantially reduced false positives at least at higher stringencies.

Conclusion

Based on this analysis, SiteGA adds substantial specificity even to optimized PWMs and may be considered for large-scale genome analysis. It adds to the range of techniques available for TFBS prediction, and EPD analysis has led to a list of genes which appear to be regulated by the above TFs.

Multiple, conserved cryptic recombination signals in VH gene segments: detection of cleavage products only in pro B cells

Receptor editing is believed to play the major role in purging newly formed B cell compartments of autoreactivity by the induction of secondary V(D)J rearrangements. In the process of immunoglobulin heavy (H) chain editing, these secondary rearrangements are mediated by direct V_H-to-J_H joining or cryptic recombination signals (cRSs) within V_H gene segments. Using a statistical model of RS, we have identified potential cRSs within V_H gene segments at conserved sites flanking complementarity-determining regions 1 and 2. These cRSs are active in extrachromosomal recombination assays and cleaved during normal B cell development. Cleavage of multiple V_H cRSs was observed in the bone marrow of C57BL/6 and RAG2:GFP and μMT congenic animals, and we determined that cRS cleavage efficiencies are 30–50-fold lower than a physiological RS. cRS signal ends are abundant in pro–B cells, including those recovered from μMT mice, but undetectable in pre– or immature B cells. Thus, V_H cRS cleavage regularly occurs before the generation of functional preBCR and BCR. Conservation of cRSs distal from the 3′ end of V_H gene segments suggests a function for these cryptic signals other than V_H gene replacement.

Gene discovery at the human T-cell receptor alpha/delta locus

The human T-cell receptor (TCR) alpha/delta variable loci are interspersed on the chromosome 14q11 and consist of 57 intergenic spaces ranging from 4 to 100 kb in length. To elucidate the evolutionary history of this locus, we searched the intergenic spaces of all TCR alpha/delta variable (TRAV/DV) genes for pseudogenes and potential protein-coding genes. We applied direct open reading frame (ORF) searches, an exon-finding algorithm and comparative genomics. Two TRAV/DV pseudogenes were discovered bearing 80 and 65% sequence similarity to TRAV14DV4 and TRAV9-1/9-2 genes, respectively. A gene bearing 85% sequence identity to B lymphocyte activation-related protein, BC-1514, upstream of TRAV26-2 was also discovered. This ORF (BC-1514tcra) is a member of a gene family whose evolutionary history and function are not known. In total, 36 analogs of this gene exist in the human, the chimpanzee, the Rhesus monkey, the frog and the zebrafish. Phylogenetic analyses show convergent evolution of these genes. Assays for the expression of BC-1514tcra revealed transcripts in the bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and small intestine. These assays also showed the expression of another analog to BC-1514, found on chromosome 5 in the bone marrow and thymus RNA. The existence of at least 17 analogs at various locations in the human genome and in nonsyntenic chromosomes of the chimpanzee suggest that BC-1514tcra, along with its analogs may be transposable elements with evolved function(s). The identification of conserved putative serine phosphorylation sites provide evidence of their possible role(s) in signal transduction events involved in B cell development and differentiation.

Computing distribution of scale independent motifs in biological sequences

The use of Chaos Game Representation (CGR) or its generalization, Universal Sequence Maps (USM), to describe the distribution of biological sequences has been found objectionable because of the fractal structure of that coordinate system. Consequently, the investigation of distribution of symbolic motifs at multiple scales is hampered by an inexact association between distance and sequence dissimilarity. A solution to this problem could unleash the use of iterative maps as phase-state representation of sequences where its statistical properties can be conveniently investigated. In this study a family of kernel density functions is described that accommodates the fractal nature of iterative function representations of symbolic sequences and, consequently, enables the exact investigation of sequence motifs of arbitrary lengths in that scale-independent representation. Furthermore, the proposed kernel density includes both Markovian succession and currently used alignment-free sequence dissimilarity metrics as special solutions. Therefore, the fractal kernel described is in fact a generalization that provides a common framework for a diverse suite of sequence analysis techniques.

V(D)J recombinase-mediated processing of coding junctions at cryptic recombination signal sequences in peripheral T cells during human development

V(D)J recombinase mediates rearrangements at immune loci and cryptic recombination signal sequences (cRSS), resulting in a variety of genomic rearrangements in normal lymphocytes and leukemic cells from children and adults. The frequency at which these rearrangements occur and their potential pathologic consequences are developmentally dependent. To gain insight into V(D)J recombinase-mediated events during human development, we investigated 265 coding junctions associated with cRSS sites at the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) locus in peripheral T cells from 111 children during the late stages of fetal development through early adolescence. We observed a number of specific V(D)J recombinase processing features that were both age and gender dependent. In particular, TdT-mediated nucleotide insertions varied depending on age and gender, including percentage of coding junctions containing N-nucleotide inserts, predominance of GC nucleotides, and presence of inverted repeats (Pr-nucleotides) at processed coding ends. In addition, the extent of exonucleolytic processing of coding ends was inversely related to age. We also observed a coding-partner-dependent difference in exonucleolytic processing and an age-specific difference in the subtypes of V(D)J-mediated events. We investigated these age- and gender-specific differences with recombination signal information content analysis of the cRSS sites in the human HPRT locus to gain insight into the mechanisms mediating these developmentally specific V(D)J recombinase-mediated rearrangements in humans.

Reassignment of the murine 3'TRDD1 recombination signal sequence

T cell receptor genes are assembled in developing T lymphocytes from discrete V, D, and J genes by a site-specific somatic rearrangement mechanism. A flanking recombination signal, composed of a conserved heptamer and a semiconserved nonamer separated by 12 or 23 variable nucleotides, targets the activity of the rearrangement machinery to the adjoining V, D, and J genes. Following the rearrangement of V, D, or J genes, their respective recombination signals are ligated together. Although these signal joints are allegedly invariant, created by the head-to-head abuttal of the heptamers, some do exhibit junctional diversity. Recombination signals were initially identified by comparison and alignment of germ-line sequences with the sequence of rearranged genes. However, their overall low level of sequence conservation makes their characterization solely from sequence data difficult. Recently, computational analysis unraveled correlations between nucleotides at several positions scattered within the spacer and recombination activity, so that it is now possible to identify putative recombination signals and determine and predict their recombination efficiency. In this paper, we analyzed the variability introduced in signal joints generated after rearrangement of the TRDD1 and TRDD2 genes in murine thymocytes. The recurrent presence of identical nucleotides inserted in these signal joints led us to reconsider the location and sequence of the TRDD1 recombination signal. By combining molecular characterization and computational analysis, we show that the functional TRDD1 recombination signal is shifted inside the putative coding sequence of the TRDD1 gene and, consequently, that this gene is shorter than indicated in the databases.

Recombinase, chromosomal translocations and lymphoid neoplasia: targeting mistakes and repair failures

A large number of lymphoid malignancies is characterized by specific chromosomal translocations, which are closely linked to the initial steps of pathogenesis. The hallmark of these translocations is the ectopic activation of a silent proto-oncogene through its relocation at the vicinity of an active regulatory element. Due to the unique feature of lymphoid cells to somatically rearrange and mutate receptor genes, and to the corresponding strong activity of the immune enhancers/promoters at that stage of cell development, B- and T-cell differentiation pathways represent propitious targets for chromosomal translocations and oncogene activation. Recent progress in the understanding of the V(D)J recombination process has allowed a more accurate definition of the translocation mechanisms involved, and has revealed that V(D)J-mediated translocations result both from targeting mistakes of the recombinase, and from illegitimate repair of the V(D)J recombination intermediates. Surprisingly, V(D)J-mediated translocations turn out to be restricted to two specific sub-types of lymphoid malignancies, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemias, and a restricted set of mature B-cell Non-Hodgkin's lymphomas.

The recombination difference between mouse kappa and lambda segments is mediated by a pair-wise regulation mechanism

In mice, kappa light chains dominate over lambda in the immunoglobulin repertoire by as much as 20-fold. Although a major contributor to this difference is the recombination signal sequences (RSS), the mechanism by which RSS cause differential representation has not been determined. To elucidate the mechanism, we tested kappa and lambda RSS flanked by their natural 5' and 3' flanks in three systems that monitor V(D)J recombination. Using extra-chromosomal recombination substrates, we established that a kappa RSS and its flanks support six- to nine-fold higher levels of recombination than a lambda counterpart. In vitro cleavage assays with these same sequences demonstrated that single cleavage at individual kappa or lambda RSS (plus flanks) occurs with comparable frequencies, but that a pair of kappa RSS (plus flanks) support significantly higher levels of double cleavage than a pair of lambda RSS (plus flanks). Using EMSA with double stranded oligonucleotides containing the same kappa or lambda RSS and their respective flanks, we examined RAG/DNA complex formation. We report that, surprisingly, RAG-1/2 form only modestly higher levels of complexes on individual 12 and 23 kappa RSS (plus natural flanks) as compared to their lambda counterparts. We conclude that the overuse of kappa compared to lambda segments cannot be accounted for by differences in RAG-1/2 binding nor by cleavage at individual RSS but rather could be accounted for by enhanced pair-wise cleavage of kappa RSS by RAG-1/2. Based on the data presented, we suggest that the biased usage of light chain segments is imposed at the level of synaptic RSS pairs.

Analysis of recombination signal sequences in zebrafish

Recombination signal sequences (RSS) from immunoglobulin and TCRalpha genes of zebrafish were analyzed in comparison with RSS from human and species-specific features were revealed. In contrast to human RSS, in zebrafish RSS from both V(H) and TCRalpha genes the last nonamer position is not conserved. On the contrary, the fourth nonamer position, which is not conserved in human or mouse is conserved in zebrafish. The 12 bp spacers from human and zebrafish RSS contain 9 bp motif resembling nonamer sequence. Spacers in zebrafish 23 bp RSS from both immunoglobulins and TCRalpha contain 7 bp motif also resembling nonamer sequence while corresponding human sequences do not contain analogous motif. RSS are recognized by RAG1 protein, which also has specific features in teleost suggesting co-evolution of RAG1 with corresponding RSS.

Computational tools for understanding sequence variability in recombination signals

The recombination signals (RSs) that guide V(D)J rearrangement are remarkably diverse. In mice, fewer than 16% of RSs carry consensus heptamers and nonamers and none also contain a consensus spacer sequence. It is increasingly clear that this variability regulates recombination: genetic variability in RSs may help enforce allelic exclusion, determine the general nature of antigen receptor repertoires, and mitigate autoreactivity in B lymphocytes. The great diversity of RSs has largely precluded, however, empiric determinations of how RS sequence affects recombination. For example, 4(39) unique 23-RSs are possible or approximately 3 x 10(23) sequences; some 7 x 10(13) unique 23-RSs can be produced just by changes in the spacer. In contrast, the recombination activities of only 100 or so RSs have been measured, and it is unlikely that the activities of even a tiny fraction of extant RSs can be determined. We have addressed the problem of how sequence determines the efficiency of RS templates by generating computational models that describe the correlation structure of mouse RSs. These models successfully predict RS activity and identify functional, cryptic RSs (cRSs). These models permit studies to identify RSs and cRSs for empiric study and constitute a tool useful for understanding RS structure and function.