Does physical activity benefit motor performance and learning of upper extremity tasks in older adults? - A systematic review

Does having an external focus in immersive virtual reality increase range of motion in people with neck pain?

BACKGROUND

When instructing exercises to improve Range of Motion (ROM), clinicians often create an internal focus of attention, while motor performance may improve more when using an external focus.

OBJECTIVES

Using Virtual Reality (VR), we investigated the effect of tasks with an internal and external focus on maximal ROM in people with neck pain and explored whether this effect was associated with fear of movement.

METHOD

In this cross-over experimental design study, the cervical ROM of 54 participants was measured while performing a target-seeking exercise in a VR-environment (external focus task) and during three maximal rotation and flexion-extension movements with the VR-headset on, without signal (internal focus task). The main statistical analysis included two dependent T-tests. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to investigate whether the differences in ROM in both conditions were correlated to fear of movement.

RESULTS

Maximal neck rotation was larger in the external focus condition than in the internal focus condition (mean difference: 26.4°, 95% CI [20.6, 32.3]; p < 0.001, d = 1.24). However, there was a difference favouring the internal focus condition for flexion-extension (mean difference: 8.2°, 95% CI [-14.9, -1.5]; p = 0.018, d = 0.33). The variability in ROM was not explained by variability in fear of movement (for all correlations p ≥ 0.197).

CONCLUSION

An external focus resulted in a larger range of rotation, but our flexion-extension findings suggest that the task has to be specific to elicit such an effect. Further research, using a task that sufficiently elicits movement in all directions, is needed to determine the value of an external focus during exercise.

Resting-state Functional Connectivity of the Motor and Cognitive Areas is Preserved in Masters Athletes

Aging is characterized by a decline in physical and cognitive functions, often resulting in decreased quality of life. Physical activity has been suggested to potentially slow down various aspects of the aging process, a theory that has been supported by studies of Masters Athletes (MA). For example, MA usually have better cognitive and physical functions than age-matched sedentary and healthy older adults (OA), making them a valuable model to gain insights into mechanisms that promote physical and cognitive function with aging. The purpose of this study was to identify differences in resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) of motor and cognitive regions between MA and OA and determine if these differences in the resting brain are associated with differences in cognitive and physical performance between groups. Fifteen MA (9 males) and 12 age-matched OA (six males) were included. rs-FC images were compared to identify significant between-groups differences in brain connectivity. There was higher connectivity between the cognitive and motor networks for the OA group, whereas the MA group had stronger connectivity between different regions within the same network, both for the cognitive and the motor networks. These results are in line with the literature suggesting that aging reduces the segregation between functional networks and causes regions within the same network to be less strongly connected. High-level physical activity practiced by the MA most likely contributes to attenuating aging-related changes in brain functional connectivity, preserving clearer boundaries between different functional networks, which may ultimately favor maintenance of efficient cognitive and sensorimotor processing.

Older and younger adults differ in time course of skill acquisition but not in overall improvement in a bimanual visuomotor tracking task

Manual motor performance declines with age, but the extent to which age influences the acquisition of new skills remains a topic of debate. Here, we examined whether older healthy adults show less training-dependent performance improvements during a single session of a bimanual pinch task than younger adults. We also explored whether physical and cognitive factors, such as grip strength or motor-cognitive ability, are associated with performance improvements. Healthy younger (n = 16) and older (n = 20) adults performed three training blocks separated by short breaks. Participants were tasked with producing visually instructed changes in pinch force using their right and left thumb and index fingers. Task complexity was varied by shifting between bimanual mirror-symmetric and inverse-asymmetric changes in pinch force. Older adults generally displayed higher visuomotor force tracking errors during the more complex inverse-asymmetric task compared to younger adults. Both groups showed a comparable net decrease in visuomotor force tracking error over the entire session, but their improvement trajectories differed. Young adults showed enhanced visuomotor tracking error only in the first block, while older adults exhibited a more gradual improvement over the three training blocks. Furthermore, grip strength and performance on a motor-cognitive test battery scaled positively with individual performance improvements during the first block in both age groups. Together, the results show subtle age-dependent differences in the rate of bimanual visuomotor skill acquisition, while overall short-term learning ability is maintained.

Influence of daily physical activity on fine motor skills of adults around a Fitts task

INTRODUCTION

Achieving our daily tasks depends on the speed-accuracy conflict. Physical activity plays a role in the development of our motor skills. However, the relationship between physical activity level (PAL) and fine motor skills remains largely unexplored.

The interplay of physical and cognitive function in rehabilitation of interstitial lung disease patients: a narrative review

Background and Objective

Interstitial lung disease (ILD) encompasses several diverse pulmonary pathologies that result in abnormal diffuse parenchymal changes. When prescribing rehabilitation, several additional factors need to be considered as a result of aging, polypharmacy, and comorbidities manifested in ILD patients. This review aims to discuss issues related to frailty, skeletal muscle and cognitive function that limit physical activities in ILD patients. It will also highlight exercise training and propose complementary strategies for pulmonary rehabilitation.

Methods

A literature search was performed in MEDLINE, CINAHL (inception to October 19th, 2022) using search terms based on concepts of: idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis or interstitial lung disease; frailty; muscular atrophy; skeletal muscle dysfunction; cognitive dysfunction; sleep quality; sleep disorders; anxiety disorders; or depressive disorders. After eligible texts were screened, additional references were included from references cited in the screened articles.

Key Content and Findings

Frailty and skeletal muscle dysfunction are common in ILD. Weight loss, exhaustion, and anti-fibrotic medications can impact frailty, whereas physical inactivity, aging, corticosteroids and hypoxemia can contribute to sarcopenia (loss of muscle mass and function). Frailty is associated with worse clinical status, exercise intolerance, skeletal muscle dysfunction, and decreased quality of life in ILD. Sarcopenia appears to influence wellbeing and can potentially affect overall physical conditioning, cognitive function and the progression of ILD. Optimal assessment tools and effective strategies to prevent and counter frailty and sarcopenia need to be determined in ILD patients. Even though cognitive impairment is evident in ILD, its prevalence and underlying neurobiological model of contributing factors (i.e., inflammation, disease severity, cardiopulmonary status) requires further investigation. How ILD affects cognitive interference, motor control and consequently physical daily activities is not well defined. Strategies such as pulmonary rehabilitation, which primarily focuses on strength and aerobic conditioning have demonstrated improvements in ILD patient outcomes. Future incorporation of interval training and the integration of motor learning could improve transfer of rehabilitation strategies to daily activities.

Conclusions

Numerous underlying etiologies of ILD contribute to frailty, skeletal muscle and cognitive function, but their respective neurobiologic mechanisms require further investigation. Exercise training increases physical measures, but complementary approaches may improve their applicability to improve daily activities.

Physical activity is associated with behavioral and neural changes across the lifespan

Physical activity is known to positively impact brain structure and function, but its effects on resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) and its relationship with complex tasks as a function of age remain unclear. Here, we address these issues in a large population-based sample (N=540) from the Cambridge Centre for Ageing and Neuroscience (Cam-CAN) repository. We relate levels of physical activity to rsFC patterns in magnetoencephalographic (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data, and to measures of executive function and visuomotor adaptation, across the lifespan. We show that higher self-reported daily physical activity is associated with lower alpha-band (8-12Hz) global coherence, indicating weaker synchrony of neural oscillations in this band. Physical activity affected between-network connectivity of resting-state functional networks, although its effects on individual networks did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. Furthermore, our results indicate that greater engagement in day-to-day physical activity is associated with better visuomotor adaptation, across the lifespan. Overall, our findings indicate that rsFC metrics indexed by MEG and fMRI are sensitive indicators of the brain's response to physical activity, and that a physically active lifestyle affects multiple aspects of neural function across the lifespan.

Mortality Trends due to Falls in the Group of People in Early (65-74 Years) and Late (75+) Old Age in Poland in the Years 2000-2020

The aim of the study was to assess mortality trends due to falls in early (65-74 years) and late (75+) old age groups in Poland in 2000-2020. The study used a database of all deaths due to falls in two age groups. Per 100,000 men in early old age, the crude death rate (CDR) increased from 25.3 in 2000 to 25.9 in 2020. After 2012, a statistically significant decrease was observed (annual percentage change (APC) = -2.3%). Similar trends were noted for standardized death rates (SDR). Among men 75 years and older, the CDR values between the years 2000 and 2005 decreased (APC = -5.9%; p < 0.05), while after 2005, they increased (1.3%; p < 0.05). The SDR value decreased from 160.6 in 2000 to 118.1 in 2020. Among women aged 65-74, the CDRs values between 2000-2020 decreased from 13.9 and 8.2 per 100,000 women. The SDR value decreased from 14.0 to 8.3, respectively (2000-2007: APC = -7.2%; p < 0.05). Among women aged 75+, the CDR value decreased from 151.5 to 111.6 per 100,000 but after 2008, they began to increase (APC = 1.9%; p < 0.05). SDR decreased from 188.9 to 98.0 per 100,000 women. Further research on the mortality in falls is needed in order to implement preventive programs.

Whole-body vibration as a passive alternative to exercise after myocardial damage in middle-aged female rats: Effects on the heart, the brain, and behavior

Background

Females with cardiovascular disease seem more vulnerable to develop concomitant mental problems, such as depression and cognitive decline. Although exercise is shown beneficial in cardiovascular disease as well as in mental functions, these patients may be incapable or unmotivated to perform exercise. Whole body vibration (WBV) could provide a passive alternative to exercise. Aim of the present study was to compare WBV to exercise after isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial damage in female rats, regarding effects on heart, brain and behavior.

Methods

One week after ISO (70 mg/kg s.c., on 2 consecutive days) or saline injections, 12 months old female rats were assigned to WBV (10 minutes daily), treadmill running (30 minutes daily) or pseudo intervention for 5 weeks. During the last 10 days, behavioral tests were performed regarding depressive-like behavior, cognitive function, and motor performance. Rats were sacrificed, brains and hearts were dissected for (immuno)histochemistry.

Results

Significant ISO-induced cardiac collagen deposition (0.67 ± 0.10 vs 0.18 ± 0.03%) was absent after running (0.45 ± 0.26 vs 0.46 ± 0.08%), but not after WBV (0.83 ± 0.12 vs 0.41 ± 0.05%). However, WBV as well as running significantly reduced hippocampal (CA3) collagen content in ISO-treated rats. Significant regional differences in hippocampal microglia activity and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression were observed. Significant ISO-induced CA1 microglia activation was reduced after WBV as well as running, while opposite effects were observed in the CA3; significant reduction after ISO that was restored by WBV and running. Both WBV and running reversed the ISO-induced increased BDNF expression in the CA1, Dentate gyrus and Hilus, but not in the CA3 area. Whereas running had no significant effect on behavior in the ISO-treated rats, WBV may be associated with short-term spatial memory in the novel location recognition test.

Conclusion

Although the female rats did not show the anticipated depressive-like behavior or cognitive decline after ISO, our data indicated regional effects on neuroinflammation and BDNF expression in the hippocampus, that were merely normalized by both WBV and exercise. Therefore, apart from the potential concern about the lack of cardiac collagen reduction, WBV may provide a relevant alternative for physical exercise.

Effect of the Juggling-Based Motor Learning Physical Activity on Well-Being in Elderly: A Pre-Post Study with a Special Training Protocol

Background: The importance of physical activity for the elderly is undeniable. Specific forms of exercise that are able to engage practitioners, both cognitively and physically, may provide more positive consequences for health and quality of life. Juggling is one of these activities that has both of these characteristics. Methods: Twenty elderly people (70.55 ± 4.91) were included in a juggling-based motor learning protocol for twelve training units during one month of exercising. An evaluation of the proposed exercises (five-point Likert scale) and a subjective assessment of well-being (WHO-5) were conducted during the protocol. Results: All participants learned to perform a three-ball flash cascade. Exercises were rated as very attractive (4.85 ± 0.31) by the practitioners, and a statistically significant improvement in well-being in participants was shown (p < 0.01; d = 0.76). Additionally, in the participating group, the number of people at risk of depression decreased significantly after the intervention with juggling classes (p < 0.01; g = 0.5). Conclusions: The proposed protocol could be an interesting physical activity for the elderly. It can be assumed that this activity, especially when performed in a group form, can improve the well-being of participants in a short period of time.

The impact of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of primary motor cortex on motor learning in older adults with low levels of activity

Background/aims

Older adults with different physical activity levels have often demonstrated individual differences in motor performance and learning. Serial reaction time task training and anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of the primary motor cortex were used in this study to evaluate how these interventions affected motor learning in older adults with low activity levels.

Methods

In this randomised controlled trial, 28 healthy, right-handed, older adults with low activity levels, with a mean age of 69.92 years, were randomly allocated to an anodal transcranial direct current stimulation group (n=14) or sham transcranial direct current stimulation group (n=14), based on a simple non-probability sampling method. The experimental group was exposed to 20 minutes of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of the motor cortex, using a tDCS device, alongside eight sequenced or randomised blocks of serial reaction time task activities, for 5 consecutive days. In the control group, the tDCS device was automatically switched off after 1 minute. To assess implicit motor learning, the response time and error rate of two sequenced blocks of serial reaction time task activities were collected before, immediately following, 1 day and 1 week after the completion of the intervention.

Results

Immediately following the end of the intervention, at day 5, the mean response time and error rate were 925.09 and 2.55 in the experimental group, and 1016.52 and 4.10 in the control group. At 1 day after the completion of the intervention, the mean response time and error rates were 927.40 and 3.03 in the experimental group and 1021.91 and 4.34 in the control group. At 1 week after the completion of the intervention, the mean response time and error rates were 942.26 and 3.63 in the experimental group and 1050.08 and 5.11 in the control group. These findings indicate that response time and error rate were significantly decreased in both stimulation groups at different time points (P<0.001). At the same time, there were no significant differences in the response time and error rate between the two groups at different time points: immediately (P=0.07, P=0.31), 1 day (P=0.06, P=0.41) and 1 week (P=0.04, P=0.35) after the completion of the intervention respectively.

Conclusions

Serial reaction time task training, with or without applying anodal transcranial direct current stimulation, can improve motor learning in low-activity older adults. Therefore, it appears that anodal transcranial direct current stimulation did not affect or improve motor learning in older adults with low motor activity. Motor learning training can be used alone as a practical and helpful intervention to improve performance and implicit motor skill learning with long-lasting effects in older adults with low levels of activity.

Can exercise shape your brain? A review of aerobic exercise effects on cognitive function and neuro-physiological underpinning mechanisms

It is widely accepted that physical exercise can be used as a tool for the prevention and treatment of various diseases or disorders. In addition, in the recent years, exercise has also been successfully used to enhance people's cognition. There is a large amount of research that has supported the benefits of physical exercise on human cognition, both in children and adults. Among these studies, some have focused on the acute or transitory effects of exercise on cognition, while others have focused on the effects of regular physical exercise. However, the relation between exercise and cognition is complex and we still have limited knowledge about the moderators and mechanisms underlying this relation. Most of human studies have focused on the behavioral aspects of exercise-effects on cognition, while animal studies have deepened in its possible neuro-physiological mechanisms. Even so, thanks to advances in neuroimaging techniques, there is a growing body of evidence that provides valuable information regarding these mechanisms in the human population. This review aims to analyze the effects of regular and acute aerobic exercise on cognition. The exercise-cognition relationship will be reviewed both from the behavioral perspective and from the neurophysiological mechanisms. The effects of exercise on animals, adult humans, and infant humans will be analyzed separately. Finally, physical exercise intervention programs aiming to increase cognitive performance in scholar and workplace environments will be reviewed.

A Single Bout of High-Intensity Cardiovascular Exercise Does Not Enhance Motor Performance and Learning of a Visuomotor Force Modulation Task, but Triggers Ipsilateral Task-Related EEG Activity

Acute cardiovascular exercise (aCE) seems to be a promising strategy to improve motor performance and learning. However, results are heterogeneous, and the related neurophysiological mechanisms are not well understood. Oscillatory brain activitiy, such as task-related power (TRPow) in the alpha and beta frequencies, are known neural signatures of motor activity. Here, we tested the effects of aCE on motor performance and learning, along with corresponding modulations in EEG TRPow over the sensorimotor cortex. Forty-five right-handed participants (aged 18-34 years) practiced a visuomotor force-matching (FM) task after either high-intensity (HEG), low-intensity (LEG), or no exercise (control group, CG). Motor performance was assessed immediately, 15 min, 30 min, and 24 h after aCE/control. EEG was measured during the FM task. Results of frequentist and Bayesian statistics revealed that high- and low-intensity aCE had no effect at the behavioral level, adding to the previous mixed results. Interestingly, EEG analyses showed an effect of aCE on the ipsilateral sensorimotor cortex, with a stronger decrease in β-TRPow 15 min after exercise in both groups compared to the CG. Overall, aCE applied before motor practice increased ipsilateral sensorimotor activity, while motor learning was not affected; it remains to be seen whether aCE might affect motor learning in the long run.

Fear of Falling: Significant Barrier in Fall Prevention Approaches

Fear of falling is a critical component in fall prevention approaches; however, it is often overlooked in the majority of fall prevention exercises. Alternative fall prevention approaches that take fear of falling into account are necessary. This article discusses fall prevention activities that are feasible for individuals with limited mobility who have an increased fear of falling. Health care providers should consider the degree to which a patient has a fear of falling and recommend activities that fit most to their patient's comfort level.

Multiple bouts of high-intensity interval exercise reverse age-related functional connectivity disruptions without affecting motor learning in older adults

Exercise has emerged as an intervention that may mitigate age-related resting state functional connectivity and sensorimotor decline. Here, 42 healthy older adults rested or completed 3 sets of high-intensity interval exercise for a total of 23 min, then immediately practiced an implicit motor task with their non-dominant hand across five separate sessions. Participants completed resting state functional MRI before the first and after the fifth day of practice; they also returned 24-h and 35-days later to assess short- and long-term retention. Independent component analysis of resting state functional MRI revealed increased connectivity in the frontoparietal, the dorsal attentional, and cerebellar networks in the exercise group relative to the rest group. Seed-based analysis showed strengthened connectivity between the limbic system and right cerebellum, and between the right cerebellum and bilateral middle temporal gyri in the exercise group. There was no motor learning advantage for the exercise group. Our data suggest that exercise paired with an implicit motor learning task in older adults can augment resting state functional connectivity without enhancing behaviour beyond that stimulated by skilled motor practice.

The effect of acute aerobic exercise on the consolidation of motor memories

Acute aerobic exercise performed prior to training may assist with motor skill acquisition through enhancement of motor cortical plasticity. In addition, high-intensity exercise performed after training improves retention, although the mechanisms of this are unclear. We hypothesized that acute continuous moderate-intensity exercise performed post-motor training would also assist with motor skill retention and that this behavioral change would be positively correlated with neural markers of training-related cortical adaptation. Participants [n = 33; assigned to an exercise (EXE) or control (CON) group] completed a single visuomotor training session using bilateral wrist movements while movement-related cortical potentials (MRCPs) were collected. After motor training, the EXE group exercised for 20 min [70% of heart rate reserve (HRR)] and the CON group read for the same amount of time. Both groups completed two post-training tests after exercise/rest: 10 min and ~ 30 min once heart rate returned to resting level in EXE. Retention and transfer tests were both completed 1 and 7 days later. MRCPs measured training-related neural adaptations during the first visit and motor performance was assessed as time and trajectory to the target. The EXE group had better performance than CON at retention (significant 7 days post-training). MRCP amplitudes increased from early to late motor training and this amplitude change was correlated with motor performance at retention. Results suggest that moderate-intensity exercise post-motor training helps motor skill retention and that there may be a relationship with motor training-related cortical adaptations that is enhanced with post-motor training exercise.

Immediate effects of treadmill walking in individuals with Lewy body dementia and Huntington's disease

BACKGROUND

Treadmill training may improve gait disorders associated with neurodegenerative diseases. In Parkinson's disease (PD), treadmill training alters gait patterns after one session, and long-term training improves gait parameters, fall risk, and quality of life.

RESEARCH QUESTION

What is the feasibility and safety of using this intervention for people with Lewy body dementia (LBD) or Huntington's disease (HD)?

METHODS

In this observational study, 10 individuals with HD, 8 individuals with LBD, and 10 control individuals walked for 20 min on a treadmill using a speed dependent protocol starting at a slow comfortable speed and increasing incrementally toward their normal overground speed. Feasibility was determined by compliance to protocol and safety by no incidents of abnormal vital signs or expressions of distress. Changes in gait measures, Timed Up and Go (TUG) scores and quantitative motor function measures (Q-Motor; precision grasp force variability, finger and foot tapping frequency) before and after treadmill walking were analyzed using linear models.

RESULTS

Treadmill training is feasible and safe in LBD and HD; although, participants could not initiate treadmill walking at their comfortable overground speeds, and only 3 participants with HD were able to achieve their overground walking speed within the 20-minute session. No changes in gait measures, TUG times, and Q-Motor measures were found among LBD and HD participants after treadmill walking, although control participants demonstrated significant increases in several gait measures, and foot tap frequency (estimated difference = 0.290; p = 0.026).

SIGNIFICANCE

Longer and more frequent treadmill sessions may be needed to see gait and motor function effects in LBD and HD. Motor and cognitive impairments associated with these diseases may make them less amenable to the effects of treadmill training.

Regular participation in leisure time activities and high cardiovascular fitness improve motor sequence learning in older adults

INTRODUCTION

Older adults show higher interindividual performance variability during the learning of new motor sequences than younger adults. It is largely unknown what factors contribute to this variability. This study aimed to, first, characterize age differences in motor sequence learning and, second, examine influencing factors for interindividual performance differences.

METHOD

30 young adults (age M = 21.89, SD = 2.08, 20 female) and 29 older adults (age M = 69.55, SD = 3.03, 18 female) participated in the study. Motor sequence learning was assessed with a discrete sequence production (DSP) task, requiring key presses to a sequence of visual stimuli. Three DSP practice phases (á 8 blocks × 16 sequences, two six-element sequences) and two transfer blocks (new untrained sequences) were performed. Older participants conducted the Mini-Mental Status Examination and a visuospatial working-memory task. All participants finished a questionnaire on everyday leisure activities and a cardiovascular fitness test.

RESULTS

Performance speed increased with practice in both groups, but young improved more than older adults (significant Group × Time effect for response time, F(1,5) = 4.353, p = 0.004, [Formula: see text] = 0.071). Accuracy did not change in any age group (non-significant Group × Time effect for error rates, F(1,5) = 2.130, p = 0.091, [Formula: see text] = 0.036). Older adults revealed lower transfer costs for performance speed (significant Time × Group effect, e.g., simple sequence, F(1,2) = 10.511, p = 0.002, [Formula: see text] = 0.156). High participation in leisure time activities (β = - 0.58, p = 0.010, R² = 0.45) and high cardiovascular fitness (β = - 0.49, p = 0.011, R² = 0.45) predicted successful motor sequence learning in older adults.

DISCUSSION

Results confirmed impaired motor learning in older adults. Younger adults seem to show a better implicit knowledge of the practiced sequences compared to older adults. Regular participation in leisure time activities and cardiovascular fitness seem to prevent age-related decline and to facilitate motor sequence performance and motor sequence learning in older adults.

Explaining Individual Differences in Fine Motor Performance and Learning in Older Adults: The Contribution of Muscle Strength and Cardiovascular Fitness

It remains controversial whether aging influences motor learning and whether physiological factors, such as local strength or fitness, are associated with fine motor performance and learning in older adults (OA). OA (n = 51) and young adults (YA, n = 31) performed a short-term motor learning session using a precision grip force modulation task. The rate of improvement of OA compared with YA was steeper with respect to performance variability and temporal precision. Both age groups showed positive transfer during an unpracticed variant of the force modulation task. Local muscle strength (pinch and grip strength) and high cardiovascular fitness positively predicted fine motor performance, whereas initial performance, muscle strength, and motor fitness (heterogeneous motor test battery) negatively predicted rate of improvement. Analyses indicated potentials, but also limits of plasticity for OA.

Acute Exercise as an Intervention to Trigger Motor Performance and EEG Beta Activity in Older Adults

Acute bouts of exercise have been shown to improve fine motor control performance and to facilitate motor memory consolidation processes in young adults. Exercise effects might be reflected in EEG task-related power (TRPow) decreases in the beta band (13-30 Hz) as an indicator of active motor processing. This study aimed to investigate those effects in healthy older adults. Thirty-eight participants (65-74 years of age) were assigned to an experimental (EG, acute exercise) or a control group (CG, rest). Fine motor control was assessed using a precision grip force modulation (FM) task. FM performance and EEG were measured at (1) baseline (immediately before acute exercise/rest), (2) during practice sessions immediately after, (3) 30 minutes, and (4) 24 hours (FM only) after exercise/rest. A marginal significant effect indicated that EG revealed more improvement in fine motor performance immediately after exercise than CG after resting. EG showed enhanced consolidation of short-term and long-term motor memory, whereas CG revealed only a tendency for short-term motor memory consolidation. Stronger TRPow decreases were revealed immediately after exercise in the contralateral frontal brain area as compared to the control condition. This finding indicates that acute exercise might enhance cortical activation and thus, improves fine motor control by enabling healthy older adults to better utilize existing frontal brain capacities during fine motor control tasks after exercise. Furthermore, acute exercise can act as a possible intervention to enhance motor memory consolidation in older adults.

Visualizing Physical Activity Patterns among Community-Dwelling Older Adults: A Pilot Study

Regular physical activity relates to physical and mental functioning in older people, and promoting physical activity has the potential to substantially reduce functional decline and improve well-being. Despite this, investigations of the physical activity quotient through participation in functional activities in everyday life have traditionally gained limited focus among older populations compared to leisure-time physical activity and exercise. Considering the accumulated evidence of the health benefits of low-intensity physical activity, exploring and measuring such activities in this population is highly relevant. The aim of this study was to visualize and describe older people’s physical activity patterns in daily life using a time-geographic approach in combination with the estimation of metabolic equivalents (METS). To exemplify the new method, a sample of nine retired men (65–82 years old, mean age 76.4 ± 5.8) with no homecare services from the municipality was recruited. In order to enable a visual analysis of the physical activity patterns in daily life, we developed the VISUAL-PA software, which is a visual analysis tool that includes METS to account for intensity and enables the analysis of distinct types and domains of physical activity. The VISUAL-PA software creates graphic outputs of physical activity patterns that enable the identification, visualization, and analysis of distinct types and intensities of physical activity in addition to sedentary behavior. The use of VISUAL-PA can contribute to a broader understanding of the complexity in physical activity patterns among older adults in terms of dimensions such as activity patterns and habits, domains, and intensity level. To strengthen the public health strategies that promote health and an active lifestyle, additional knowledge about physical activity patterns is necessary. Moreover, the visualization of physical activity can enable reflections on and awareness of activity habits and preferences, and thus facilitate behavior changes in older individuals.

Effects of the Timing of Acute Exercise and Movement Complexity on Young Adults' Psychomotor Learning

The role of acute bouts of exercise on young adults' psychomotor learning was assessed in two experiments. In Experiment 1, 10 min of exercise performed immediately following pursuit-rotor training improved retention of tracking movements, but only when measured 7 days following encoding and only under exercise conditions that required complex decisions. In Experiment 2, 10 min of exercise performed immediately prior to encoding resulted in a retention pattern similar to that seen in Experiment 1; however, performance did not differ significantly between exercise and control groups. In both experiments, retention of motor movement was greater when measured 24 hr and 7 days after training, as opposed to immediately following encoding. The mnemonic benefits of moderately vigorous complex physical activity appear to assist a motor memory trace to transform from a fragile to a more persistent state.

Reference values for the six-minute pegboard and ring test in healthy adults in Brazil

Objective:

To determine reference values for the six-minute pegboard and ring test (6PBRT) in healthy adults in Brazil, correlating the results with arm length, circumference of the upper arm/forearm of the dominant arm, and the level of physical activity.

Methods:

The participants (all volunteers) performed two 6PBRTs, 30 min apart. They were instructed to move as many rings as possible in six minutes. The best test result was selected for data analysis.

Results:

The sample comprised 104 individuals, all over 30 years of age. Reference values were reported by age bracket. We found that age correlated with 6PBRT results. The number of rings moved was higher in the 30- to 39-year age group than in the > 80-year age group (430.25 ± 77.00 vs. 265.00 ± 65.75), and the difference was significant (p < 0.05). The 6PBRT results showed a weak, positive correlation with the level of physical activity (r = 0.358; p < 0.05) but did not correlate significantly with any other variable studied.

Conclusions:

In this study, we were able to determine reference values for the 6PBRT in healthy adults in Brazil. There was a correlation between 6PBRT results and age.

Exercise-Induced Neuroplasticity: A Mechanistic Model and Prospects for Promoting Plasticity

Aerobic exercise improves cognitive and motor function by inducing neural changes detected using molecular, cellular, and systems level neuroscience techniques. This review unifies the knowledge gained across various neuroscience techniques to provide a comprehensive profile of the neural mechanisms that mediate exercise-induced neuroplasticity. Using a model of exercise-induced neuroplasticity, this review emphasizes the sequence of neural events that accompany exercise, and ultimately promote changes in human performance. This is achieved by differentiating between neuroplasticity induced by acute versus chronic aerobic exercise. Furthermore, this review emphasizes experimental considerations that influence the opportunity to observe exercise-induced neuroplasticity in humans. These include modifiable factors associated with the exercise intervention and nonmodifiable factors such as biological sex, ovarian hormones, genetic variations, and fitness level. To maximize the beneficial effects of exercise in health, disease, and following injury, future research should continue to explore the mechanisms that mediate exercise-induced neuroplasticity. This review identifies some fundamental gaps in knowledge that may serve to guide future research in this area.