Synergistically Enhanced Inhibitory Effects of Pullulan Nanoparticle-Mediated Co-Delivery of Lovastatin and Doxorubicin to Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Potential of Pullulan-Based Polymeric Nanoparticles for Improving Drug Physicochemical Properties and Effectiveness

Pullulan, a natural polysaccharide with unique biocompatibility and biodegradability, has gained prominence in nanomedicine. Its application in nanoparticle drug delivery systems showcases its potential for precision medicine.

AIM OF STUDY

This scientific review aims to comprehensively discuss and summarize recent advancements in pullulan-based polymeric nanoparticles, focusing on their formulation, characterization, evaluation, and efficacy.

METHODOLOGY

A search on Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar, using "Pullulan and Nanoparticle" as keywords, identified relevant articles in recent years.

RESULTS

The literature search highlighted a diverse range of studies on the pullulan-based polymeric nanoparticles, including the success of high-selectivity hybrid pullulan-based nanoparticles for efficient boron delivery in colon cancer as the active targeting nanoparticle, the specific and high-efficiency release profile of the development of hyalgan-coated pullulan-based nanoparticles, and the design of multifunctional microneedle patches that incorporated pullulan-collagen-based nanoparticle-loaded antimicrobials to accelerate wound healing. These studies collectively underscore the versatility and transformative potential of pullulan-based polymeric nanoparticles in addressing biomedical challenges.

CONCLUSION

Pullulan-based polymeric nanoparticles are promising candidates for innovative drug delivery systems, with the potential to overcome the limitations associated with traditional delivery methods.

Polymeric nanomaterials-based theranostic platforms for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment

Breast cancer, the second leading global cause of death, affects 2.1 million women annually, with an alarming 15 percent mortality rate. Among its diverse forms, Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) emerges as the deadliest, characterized by the absence of hormone receptors. This article underscores the urgent need for innovative treatment approaches in tackling TNBC, emphasizing the transformative potential of polymeric nanomaterials (PNMs). Evolved through nanotechnology, PNMs offer versatile biomedical applications, particularly in addressing the intricate challenges of TNBC. The synthesis methods of PNMs, explored within the tumor microenvironment using cellular models, showcase their dynamic nature in cancer treatment. The article anticipates the future of TNBC therapeutics through the optimization of PNMs-based strategies, integrating them into photothermal (PT), photodynamic (PT), and hyperthermia therapy (HTT), drug delivery, and active tumor targeting strategies. Advancements in synthetic methods, coupled with a nuanced understanding of the tumor microenvironment, hold promise for personalized interventions. Comparative investigations of therapeutic models and a thorough exploration of polymeric nanoplatforms toxicological perspectives become imperative for ensuring efficacy and safety. We have explored the interdisciplinary collaboration between nanotechnology, oncology, and molecular biology as pivotal in translating PNMs innovations into tangible benefits for TNBC patients.

Nutritive profile, pharmaceutical potentials, and structural analysis of multifunctional bioactive fungal polysaccharides-A review

Asian nations have long used edible fungi as food and medicine. Polysaccharides are among the main building units of the cell walls of fungi. Fungal polysaccharides have been documented in the medicinal and industrial sectors as products with a vast array of various biological activities and applications such as antitumor, antioxidant, anticancer, immunomodulation, and antiviral activities, etc. The goal of this review is to give insights into the various biological activities of mushroom polysaccharides and their potential as a medicine for human health. The extraction, purity, and structural analysis of fungal polysaccharides were also reviewed in this work. Also, future prospective, and challenges for fungal polysaccharides in pharmaceutical applications can be found in this review. Overall, this review serves as a valuable resource in exploring the therapeutic potential and applications of fungal polysaccharides. By building upon the existing knowledge base and addressing critical research gaps, researchers can find new opportunities for utilizing fungal polysaccharides as valuable therapeutic agents and functional ingredients in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and biotechnology.

Lipid-based nanoparticle-mediated combination therapy for breast cancer management: a comprehensive review

Breast cancer due to the unpredictable and complex etiopathology combined with the non-availability of any effective drug treatment has become the major root of concern for oncologists globally. The number of women affected by the said disease state is increasing at an alarming rate attributed to environmental and lifestyle changes indicating at the exploration of a novel treatment strategy that can eradicate this aggressive disease. So far, it is treated by promising nanomedicine monotherapy; however, according to the numerous studies conducted, the inadequacy of these nano monotherapies in terms of elevated toxicity and resistance has been reported. This review, therefore, puts forth a new multimodal strategic approach to lipid-based nanoparticle-mediated combination drug delivery in breast cancer, emphasizing the recent advancements. A basic overview about the combination therapy and its index is firstly given. Then, the various nano-based combinations of chemotherapeutics involving the combination delivery of synthetic and herbal agents are discussed along with their examples. Further, the recent exploration of chemotherapeutics co-delivery with small interfering RNA (siRNA) agents has also been explained herein. Finally, a section providing a brief description of the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents with monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) has been presented. From this review, we aim to provide the researchers with deep insight into the novel and much more effective combinational lipid-based nanoparticle-mediated nanomedicines tailored specifically for breast cancer treatment resulting in synergism, enhanced antitumor efficacy, and low toxic effects, subsequently overcoming the hurdles associated with conventional chemotherapy.

Synergistic delivery of Imatinib through multifunctional nano-crystalline capsules, in response to redox environment for improved breast cancer therapy

Chondroitin anchored crystalline nano-capsules bearing Imatinib (IMT), and simvastatin (SMV) was developed using Poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) by two-step method, i.e., firstly, by synthesizing chondroitin (CSA) anchored simvastatin (SMV) using cystamine as a spacer (SMV-SS-CSA) for disulfide triggered glutathione (GSH) sensitive release and secondly, by developing phenyl boronic ester grafted Pluronic F68 (PEPF) for H₂O₂ responsive release. By combining these conjugates, we have prepared crystalline nano-capsules (CNs) for preferential targeting of CD44 receptors. The developed CNs were spherical when characterized through SEM, TEM, and AFM for surface morphology, while changes in particle size and crystalline structure were confirmed through Quasi-Elastic light scattering (QELS) and Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS). The enhanced cellular uptake was noted in chondroitin-modified nano-capsules IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs compared to unmodified nano-capsules IMT+SMV@CNs. IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs displayed significantly higher G2/M phase arrest (76.9%) than unmodified nano-capsules. The prototype formulation (IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs) showed an overall improved pharmacokinetic profile in terms of both half-life and AUC_0-α. When tested in the 4T1 subcutaneously injected tumor-bearing Balb/c mice model, the tumor growth inhibition rate of IMT/SMV-SS-CSA@CNs was significantly higher (91%) than the IMT+SMV combination. Overall, the findings suggest that the proposed dual responsive chondroitin-modified drug delivery could have a step forward in achieving spatial and temporal targeting at the tumor site.

Pullulan in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical formulations: A review

Pullulan, an α-glucan polysaccharide, is colorless, odorless, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, highly biocompatible, edible and biodegradable in nature. The long chains of glucopyranose rings in pullulan structure are linked together by α-(1 → 4) and α-(1 → 6) glycosidic linkages. The occurrence of both glycosidic linkages in the pullulan structure contributes to its distinctive properties. The unique structure of pullulan makes it a potent candidate for both pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical applications. In pharmaceuticals, it can be used as a drug carrier and in various dosage formulations. It has been widely used in drug targeting, implants, ocular dosage forms, topical formulations, oral dosage forms, and oral liquid formulations, etc. Pullulan can be used as a potential carrier of active ingredients and their site-specific delivery to skin layers for cosmeceutical applications. It has been extensively used in cosmeceutical formulations like creams, shampoo, lotions, sunscreen, facial packs, etc. The current review highlights applications of pullulan in pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical applications.

Exopolysaccharides of Fungal Origin: Properties and Pharmaceutical Applications

Fungal exopolysaccharides (EPSs) represent an important group of bioactive compounds secreted by fungi. These biopolymers can be utilized individually or in combination with different bioactive substances for a broad range of pharmaceutical field applications, due to their various biological activities, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-diabetic, and anticoagulant effects. The paper presents an up-to-date review of the main fungal polysaccharides (pullulan, schizophyllan, scleroglucan, botryosphaeran, lentinan, grifolan, and lasiodiplodan), highlighting their structures, producing strains, and useful properties in a double position, as controlled release (rate and selectively targeting) drug carriers, but mostly as active immunomodulating and antitumor compounds in cancer therapy.

Self-assembly of a 5-fluorouracil and camptothecin dual drug dipeptide conjugate

Nano-formulated, combinatory therapeutics that control the spatiotemporal aspects of drug release have potential to overcome many of the challenges faced in cancer therapy. Herein, we describe a peptide nanotube functionalized with two anticancer drugs, 5-fluoruracil (5-FU) and camptothecin (CPT). The nanotube was formed via peptide self-assembly, which positioned 5-FU on the surface at the aqueous interface; whereas, CPT was sequestered within the hydrophobic walls. Thus, two different release profiles were observed: rapid release of 5-FU, followed by slower, sustained production of CPT. This profile emerged from the rapid hydrolytic cleavage of 5-FU at the aqueous/nanotube interface, which produced a smaller nanotube comprised of the peptide fragment.

Inhibitory effect of lovastatin on human lung cancer cell proliferation by regulating the ERK1/2 and COX-2 pathways

Background

Lovastatin is an inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, effectively inhibiting cholesterol synthesis. Previous research findings showed that lovastatin markedly suppressed tumor cell proliferation and metastasis and induced apoptosis. The present study aimed to determine the underlying mechanism of the suppressive effect of lovastatin on the growth of human lung cancer cells.

Methods

The A549 cell line was treated with different concentrations of lovastatin. Subsequently, cell proliferation and colony formation were analyzed, along with the expression of apoptosis-related proteins (ERK1/2, c-JUN, COX-2, BCL-2, and BAX) by western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. Experimental data were analyzed with SPSS 25.0 and expressed as the mean ± SEM. One-way ANOVA or two-way independent samples t-test were used.

Results

The results confirmed that lovastatin suppressed cell viability and reduced the numbers of cell colonies, and a concentration-dependent response was observed with increasing lovastatin concentrations (P<0.05). Accordingly, these suppressive effects were related to decreased protein expression levels of p-ERK1/2/ERK1/2, p-c-JUN/c-JUN, COX-2, and BCL-2 and increased BAX protein expression (P<0.05). Furthermore, we conducted an experimental intervention with low-dose LPS+ATP to stimulate A549 cell growth, and then examined the proliferation and apoptosis of A549 cells after LPS+ATP+50 µM lovastatin intervention. The principal finding of this research was that lovastatin still suppressed A549 cell growth after LPS+ATP stimulation via modulation of ERK1/2, c-JUN, COX-2, BCL-2, and BAX protein levels (P<0.05).

Conclusions

Collectively, the findings presented in this study confirmed that lovastatin can inhibit A549 cell proliferation by regulating the ERK1/2 and COX-2 pathways.

Downstream processing and structural confirmation of pullulan - A comprehensive review

Pullulan is a microbial polymer, commercially produced from Aureobasidium pullulans. Downstream processing of pullulan involves a multi-stage process which should be efficient, safe and reproducible. In liquid-liquid separations, firstly cell free extract is separated. Cell biomass can be separated after fermentation either by centrifugation or filtration. Due to practically insolubility of pullulan in organic solvents, ethanol and isopropanol are the most commonly used organic solvents for its recovery. Pullulan can also be purified by chromatographic techniques, but these are not cost effective for the purification of pullulan. Efficient aqueous two-phase system can be used for the purification of pullulan. The current review describes the methods and perspectives used for solid-liquid separation, liquid-liquid separations and finishing steps for the recovery of pullulan. Techniques used to determine the structural attributes of pullulan have also been highlighted.

Lovastatin enhances chemosensitivity of paclitaxel-resistant prostate cancer cells through inhibition of CYP2C8

Chemotherapy is the mainstay of treatment for prostate cancer, with paclitaxel being commonly used for hormone-resistant prostate cancer. However, drug resistance often develops and leads to treatment failure in a variety of prostate cancer patients. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance the sensitivity of prostate cancer to chemotherapy. Lovastatin (LV) is a natural compound extracted from Monascus-fermented foods and is an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR), which has been approved by the FDA for hyperlipidemia treatment. We have previously found that LV could inhibit the proliferation of refractory cancer cells. Up to now, the effect of LV on chemosensitization and the mechanisms involved have not been evaluated in drug-resistant prostate cancer. In this study, we used prostate cancer cell line PC3 and its paclitaxel-resistant counterpart PC3-TxR as the cell model. Alamar Blue cell viability assay showed that LV and paclitaxel each conferred concentration-dependent inhibition of PC3-TxR cells. When paclitaxel was combined with LV, the proliferation of PC3-TxR cells was synergistically inhibited, as demonstrated by combination index <1. Moreover, colony formation decreased while apoptosis increased in paclitaxel plus LV group compared with paclitaxel alone group. Quantitative RT-PCR showed that the combination of paclitaxel and LV could significantly reduce the expression of CYP2C8, an important drug-metabolizing enzyme. Bioinformatics analysis from the TCGA database showed that CYP2C8 expression was negatively correlated with progression-free survival (PFS) in prostate cancer patients. Our results suggest that LV might increase the sensitivity of resistant prostate cancer cells to paclitaxel through inhibition of CYP2C8 and could be utilized as a chemosensitizer for paclitaxel-resistant prostate cancer cells.

A Study of Hydrophobically Modified Pullulan Nanoparticles with Different Hydrophobic Densities on the Effect of Anti-Colon Cancer Cell Efficiency

To discuss the effect of hydrophobic groups of a polymer on the structural properties and function of polymer nanoparticles (NPs), we grafted chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) with pullulan (PU) to form hydrophobically modified PU (PUC). Three PUC polymers, namely, PUC-1, PUC-2, and PUC-3, with different degrees of substitution were designed by changing the feed ratio of CDCA and PU. ¹H-NMR spectra showed that the PUC polymer was successfully synthesized, and the degrees of hydrophobic substitution for PUC-1, PUC-2, and PUC-3 were calculated to be 10.66%, 13.92%, and 16.94%, respectively. The PUC NPs were prepared by the dialysis method and were shown to be uniformly spherical by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The average sizes were about (220±10) nm, (203±7) nm, and (163±6) nm under dynamic light scattering (DLS) for PUC-1 NPs, PUC-2 NPs, and PUC-3 NPs, respectively. Drug release experiments showed that the three PUC/DOX NPs exhibited good sustained release. At 48 h, the IC₅₀ of doxorubicin in inhibiting colon cancer HCT116 cells was 0.0904 μg/mL. A cell study showed that PUC-3/DOX NPs had the highest uptake efficiency by HCT116 cells with the most cytotoxicity and inhibited the migration of HCT116 cells with the highest efficiency. The structural properties and function of polymer NPs were closely related to the hydrophobic groups in the polymer, and NPs with higher hydrophobicity showed a smaller size, higher drug capacity, and greater cell efficiency.

An overview on the biological activity and anti-cancer mechanism of lovastatin

Lovastatin, a secondary metabolite isolated from fungi, is often used as a representative drug to reduce blood lipid concentration and treat hypercholesterolemia. Its structure is similar to that of HMG-CoA. Lovastatin inhibits the binding of the substrate to HMG-CoA reductase, and strongly competes with HMG-CoA reductase (HMGR), thereby exerting a hypolipidemic effect. Further, its safety has been confirmed in vivo and in vitro. Lovastatin also has anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and neuroprotective effects. Therefore, the biological activity of lovastatin, especially its anti-cancer effect, has garnered research attention. Several in vitro studies have confirmed that lovastatin has a significant inhibitory effect on cancer cell viability in a variety of cancers (such as breast, liver, cervical, lung, and colon cancer). At the same time, lovastatin can also increase the sensitivity of some types of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic drugs and strengthen their therapeutic effect. Lovastatin inhibits cell proliferation and regulates cancer cell signaling pathways, thereby inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. This article reviews the structure, biosynthetic pathways, and applications of lovastatin, focusing on the anti-cancer effects and mechanisms of action.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Dexamethasone-Salvianolic Acid B Conjugates and Nanodrug Delivery against Cisplatin-Induced Hearing Loss

Cisplatin (CDDP) is an extensively used chemotherapeutic agent but has a high incidence of severe ototoxicity. Although a few molecules have entered clinical trials, none have been approved to prevent or treat CDDP-induced hearing loss by the Food and Drug Administration. In this study, an amphiphilic drug-drug conjugate was synthesized by covalently linking dexamethasone (DEX) and salvianolic acid B (SAL) through an ester or amide bond. The conjugates could self-assemble into nanoparticles (NPs) with ultrahigh drug loading capacity and favorable stability. Compared with DEX, SAL, or their physical mixture at the same concentrations, both conjugates and NPs showed enhanced otoprotection in vitro and in vivo. More importantly, the conjugates and NPs almost completely restored hearing in a guinea pig model with good biocompatibility. Immunohistochemical analyses suggested that conjugates and NPs activated the glucocorticoid receptor, which may work as one of the major mechanisms for their protective effects.

Anti-tumor activity of resveratrol against gastric cancer: a review of recent advances with an emphasis on molecular pathways

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers with high malignancy. In spite of the great development in diagnostic tools and application of anti-tumor drugs, we have not witnessed a significant increase in the survival time of patients with GC. Multiple studies have revealed that Wnt, Nrf2, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways are involved in GC invasion. Besides, long non-coding RNAs and microRNAs function as upstream mediators in GC malignancy. GC cells have acquired resistance to currently applied anti-tumor drugs. Besides, combination therapy is associated with higher anti-tumor activity. Resveratrol (Res) is a non-flavonoid polyphenol with high anti-tumor activity used in treatment of various cancers. A number of studies have demonstrated the potential of Res in regulation of molecular pathways involved in cancer malignancy. At the present review, we show that Res targets a variety of signaling pathways to induce apoptotic cell death and simultaneously, to inhibit the migration and metastasis of GC cells.

Synergistic antitumor effect of 5-fluorouracil and withaferin-A induces endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated autophagy and apoptosis in colorectal cancer cells

The development of chemo-resistance against 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in tumor cells is one of the main debacles in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients. A recent combination of 5-FU with oxaliplatin or cetuximab drastically improves the survival rate in CRC patients; however, the toxicity issue cannot be evaded completely. Thus, searching for novel drug combinations with high specificity and low toxicity is seemingly important. Owing to the less undesirable effects of natural products on normal cells, here we investigated the synergistic antitumor effect of withaferin-A (WA) in combination with 5-FU. Our results demonstrate that the combination of WA and 5-FU induces a significant antiproliferative effect and modulates endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in favor of cell death in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. Mechanistically, the combination upregulates the expression of ER stress sensors (BiP, PERK, CHOP, ATF-4, and eIF2α) and executes PERK axis mediated apoptosis in CRC cells. Additionally, the combined treatment of WA and 5-FU mediated ER stress induces autophagy and apoptosis, which were confirmed by immunoblotting, acridine orange (AO) staining and annexin-V FITC by flow cytometry. In contrast, inhibition of ER stress with salubrinal significantly decreases both autophagic and apoptotic cell populations. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of either autophagy or apoptosis by their respective inhibitors 3-methyladenine (3-MA) or carbobenzoxy-valyl-alanyl-aspartyl-[O-methyl]-fluoro-methyl ketone (Z-VAD-FMK) decreases their respective population of cells but could not affect either of the population significantly. Finally, the combination attenuates the expression of β-catenin pathway associated proteins and arrests cell cycle at the G₂M phase in CRC cells. In summary, the combination of WA and 5-FU decreases cell viability by inducing ER stress-mediated induction of autophagy and apoptosis, inhibiting the β-catenin pathway and arresting the cell cycle at a G₂M phase in CRC cells.