Liver toxicity assessments in rats following sub-chronic oral exposure to copper nanoparticles

The Effect of Copper Nanoparticles on Liver Metabolism Depends on the Type of Dietary Fiber

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

A diet enriched with copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) exhibits a wide range of effects on liver metabolism, both positive and negative. Dietary fibers are the key components that may affect the absorption of minerals, including copper, and change their impact on organisms.

METHODS

Therefore, this study investigated whether and how supplementation with different sources of dietary fiber (cellulose, pectin, inulin, and psyllium) affects the function of CuNPs in the liver of male Wistar rats.

RESULTS

The results showed that CuNPs at different doses had varying effects on lipid metabolism and inflammation in the liver. Specifically, higher doses of CuNPs were associated with increased lipid accumulation and the activation of pro-inflammatory mechanisms. However, combining CuNPs with dietary fibers, such as psyllium and inulin, was beneficial in mitigating the effects of the examined nanoparticles, leading to reduced fat, cholesterol, and triglycerides in the liver. Combining psyllium with CuNPs showed the most substantial effect on liver metabolism and inflammation parameters. Furthermore, hepatic histology analyses showed that adding psyllium to the diet with CuNPs reduces changes associated with fat accumulation and mononuclear cell infiltration. The observed beneficial changes in the liver may have been related to a reduction in the gene expression level of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and cyclooxygenase-2.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, enriching the diet with dietary fibers such as psyllium can regulate the action of CuNPs, thereby improving lipid metabolism and reducing inflammation in the liver.

A Review on Bioflocculant-Synthesized Copper Nanoparticles: Characterization and Application in Wastewater Treatment

Copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) are tiny materials with special features such as high electric conductivity, catalytic activity, antimicrobial activity, and optical activity. Published reports demonstrate their utilization in various fields, including biomedical, agricultural, environmental, wastewater treatment, and sensor fields. CuNPs can be produced utilizing traditional procedures; nevertheless, such procedures have restrictions like excessive consumption of energy, low production yields, and the utilization of detrimental substances. Thus, the adoption of environmentally approachable "green" approaches for copper nanoparticle synthesis is gaining popularity. These approaches involve employing plants, bacteria, and fungi. Nonetheless, there is a scarcity of data regarding the application of microbial bioflocculants in the synthesis of copper NPs. Therefore, this review emphasizes copper NP production using microbial flocculants, which offer economic benefits and are sustainable and harmless. The review also provides a characterization of the synthesized copper nanoparticles, employing numerous analytical tools to determine their compositional, morphological, and topographical features. It focuses on scientific advances from January 2015 to December 2023 and emphasizes the use of synthesized copper NPs in wastewater treatment.

Deadly excess copper

Higher eukaryotes' life is impossible without copper redox activity and, literally, every breath we take biochemically demonstrates this. However, this dependence comes at a considerable price to ensure target-oriented copper action. Thereto its uptake, distribution but also excretion are executed by specialized proteins with high affinity for the transition metal. Consequently, malfunction of copper enzymes/transporters, as is the case in hereditary Wilson disease that affects the intracellular copper transporter ATP7B, comes with serious cellular damage. One hallmark of this disease is the progressive copper accumulation, primarily in liver but also brain that becomes deadly if left untreated. Such excess copper toxicity may also result from accidental ingestion or attempted suicide. Recent research has shed new light into the cell-toxic mechanisms and primarily affected intracellular targets and processes of such excess copper that may even be exploited with respect to cancer therapy. Moreover, new therapies are currently under development to fight against deadly toxic copper.

Copper, Iron, Cadmium, and Arsenic, All Generated in the Universe: Elucidating Their Environmental Impact Risk on Human Health Including Clinical Liver Injury

Humans are continuously exposed to various heavy metals including copper, iron, cadmium, and arsenic, which were specifically selected for the current analysis because they are among the most frequently encountered environmental mankind and industrial pollutants potentially causing human health hazards and liver injury. So far, these issues were poorly assessed and remained a matter of debate, also due to inconsistent results. The aim of the actual report is to thoroughly analyze the positive as well as negative effects of these four heavy metals on human health. Copper and iron are correctly viewed as pollutant elements essential for maintaining human health because they are part of important enzymes and metabolic pathways. Healthy individuals are prepared through various genetically based mechanisms to maintain cellular copper and iron homeostasis, thereby circumventing or reducing hazardous liver and organ injury due to excessive amounts of these metals continuously entering the human body. In a few humans with gene aberration, however, liver and organ injury may develop because excessively accumulated copper can lead to Wilson disease and substantial iron deposition to hemochromatosis. At the molecular level, toxicities of some heavy metals are traced back to the Haber Weiss and Fenton reactions involving reactive oxygen species formed in the course of oxidative stress. On the other hand, cellular homeostasis for cadmium and arsenic cannot be provided, causing their life-long excessive deposition in the liver and other organs. Consequently, cadmium and arsenic represent health hazards leading to higher disability-adjusted life years and increased mortality rates due to cancer and non-cancer diseases. For unknown reasons, however, liver injury in humans exposed to cadmium and arsenic is rarely observed. In sum, copper and iron are good for the human health of most individuals except for those with Wilson disease or hemochromatosis at risk of liver injury through radical formation, while cadmium and arsenic lack any beneficial effects but rather are potentially hazardous to human health with a focus on increased disability potential and risk for cancer. Primary efforts should focus on reducing the industrial emission of hazardous heavy metals.

Alleviative effect of betaine against copper oxide nanoparticles-induced hepatotoxicity in adult male albino rats: histopathological, biochemical, and molecular studies

Background

Copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs) have gained interest due to their availability, efficiency, and their cost-effectiveness. Betaine is an essential methyl donor and takes part in various physiological activities inside the body; it is found to have protective and curative effects against various liver diseases. The present study aimed to evaluate the hepatotoxic effect of CuO-NPs on adult male albino rats and the ability of betaine to alleviate such hepatotoxicity.

Methods

Forty adult male albino Wister rats were grouped into 4 groups (10 rats/group): group I a negative control, group II (CuO-NPs) injected with CuO-NPs intra peritoneal by insulin needle (0.5 mg/kg/day), group III (betaine + CuO-NPs) administered betaine orally by gavage needle (250 mg/kg/day 1 h before CuO-NPs) and CuO-NPs (0.5 mg/kg/day) finally, group IV (betaine) administered betaine orally by gavage needle (250 mg/kg/day) for consecutive 28 days. Blood and liver samples were gathered and processed for biochemical, molecular, histopathological, and immunohistochemical investigations.

Results

Group II displayed a marked rise in alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Furthermore, there is an excessive upregulation of the inflammatory biomarkers interleukin1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). On the other hand, substantial reduction in glutathione (GSH) levels and significant downregulation at glutathione peroxidase (GPx) mRNA gene expression. Regarding the histopathological deviations, there were severe congestion, dilatation and hyalinization of blood vessels, steatosis, hydropic degeneration, hepatocytic necrosis, increased binucleation, degenerated bile ducts, hyperplasia of ducts epithelial lining, and inflammatory cells infiltration. Immunohistochemically, there was a pronounced immunoreactivity toward IL-1β. Luckily, the pre-administration of betaine was able to mitigate these changes. MDA was dramatically reduced, resulting in the downregulation of IL-1β and TNF-α. Additionally, there was a considerable rise in GSH levels and an upregulation of GPx. Histopathological deviations were substantially improved as diminished dilatation, hyalinization and congestion of blood vessels, hepatocytes, and bile ducts are normal to some extent. In addition, IL-1β immunohistochemical analysis revealed marked decreased intensity.

Conclusion

Betaine can effectively reduce the hepatotoxicity caused by CuO-NPs via its antioxidant properties and its ability to stimulate the cell redox system.

Wilson Disease: Copper-Mediated Cuproptosis, Iron-Related Ferroptosis, and Clinical Highlights, with Comprehensive and Critical Analysis Update

Wilson disease is a genetic disorder of the liver characterized by excess accumulation of copper, which is found ubiquitously on earth and normally enters the human body in small amounts via the food chain. Many interesting disease details were published on the mechanistic steps, such as the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cuproptosis causing a copper dependent cell death. In the liver of patients with Wilson disease, also, increased iron deposits were found that may lead to iron-related ferroptosis responsible for phospholipid peroxidation within membranes of subcellular organelles. All topics are covered in this review article, in addition to the diagnostic and therapeutic issues of Wilson disease. Excess Cu2+ primarily leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as evidenced by early experimental studies exemplified with the detection of hydroxyl radical formation using the electron spin resonance (ESR) spin-trapping method. The generation of ROS products follows the principles of the Haber-Weiss reaction and the subsequent Fenton reaction leading to copper-related cuproptosis, and is thereby closely connected with ROS. Copper accumulation in the liver is due to impaired biliary excretion of copper caused by the inheritable malfunctioning or missing ATP7B protein. As a result, disturbed cellular homeostasis of copper prevails within the liver. Released from the liver cells due to limited storage capacity, the toxic copper enters the circulation and arrives at other organs, causing local accumulation and cell injury. This explains why copper injures not only the liver, but also the brain, kidneys, eyes, heart, muscles, and bones, explaining the multifaceted clinical features of Wilson disease. Among these are depression, psychosis, dysarthria, ataxia, writing problems, dysphagia, renal tubular dysfunction, Kayser-Fleischer corneal rings, cardiomyopathy, cardiac arrhythmias, rhabdomyolysis, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, arthritis, and arthralgia. In addition, Coombs-negative hemolytic anemia is a key feature of Wilson disease with undetectable serum haptoglobin. The modified Leipzig Scoring System helps diagnose Wilson disease. Patients with Wilson disease are well-treated first-line with copper chelators like D-penicillamine that facilitate the removal of circulating copper bound to albumin and increase in urinary copper excretion. Early chelation therapy improves prognosis. Liver transplantation is an option viewed as ultima ratio in end-stage liver disease with untreatable complications or acute liver failure. Liver transplantation finally may thus be a life-saving approach and curative treatment of the disease by replacing the hepatic gene mutation. In conclusion, Wilson disease is a multifaceted genetic disease representing a molecular and clinical challenge.

Research Progress of Nanomaterials Acting on NK Cells in Tumor Immunotherapy and Imaging

The prognosis for cancer patients has declined dramatically in recent years due to the challenges in treating malignant tumors. Tumor immunotherapy, which includes immune target inhibition and chimeric antigen receptor cell treatment, is currently evolving quickly. Among them, natural killer (NK) cells are gradually becoming another preferred cell immunotherapy after T cell immunotherapy due to their unique killing effects in innate and adaptive immunity. NK cell therapy has shown encouraging outcomes in clinical studies; however, there are still some problems, including limited efficacy in solid tumors, inadequate NK cell penetration, and expensive treatment expenses. Noteworthy benefits of nanomaterials include their chemical specificity, biocompatibility, and ease of manufacturing; these make them promising instruments for enhancing NK cell anti-tumor immune responses. Nanomaterials can promote NK cell homing and infiltration, participate in NK cell modification and non-invasive cell tracking and imaging modes, and greatly increase the effectiveness of NK cell immunotherapy. The introduction of NK cell-based immunotherapy research and a more detailed discussion of nanomaterial research in NK cell-based immunotherapy and molecular imaging will be the main topics of this review.

A Review of the Antibacterial, Fungicidal and Antiviral Properties of Selenium Nanoparticles

The resistance of microorganisms to antimicrobial drugs is an important problem worldwide. To solve this problem, active searches for antimicrobial components, approaches and therapies are being carried out. Selenium nanoparticles have high potential for antimicrobial activity. The relevance of their application is indisputable, which can be noted due to the significant increase in publications on the topic over the past decade. This review of research publications aims to provide the reader with up-to-date information on the antimicrobial properties of selenium nanoparticles, including susceptible microorganisms, the mechanisms of action of nanoparticles on bacteria and the effect of nanoparticle properties on their antimicrobial activity. This review describes the most complete information on the antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal effects of selenium nanoparticles.

Copper nanoparticles lead to reproductive dysfunction by affecting key enzymes of ovarian hormone synthesis and metabolism in female rats

Studies on the general toxicity of copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) have been conducted extensively, but their effects on reproductive toxicity remain unclear. In this study, we evaluated the toxic effect of Cu NPs on pregnant rats and their litter. The comparative in vivo toxicity of Cu ions, Cu NPs, and Cu microparticles (MPs) was studied in a 17-day repeated oral-dose experiment at the doses of 60, 120, and 180 mg/kg/day in pregnant rats. The pregnancy rate, mean live litter size, and number of dams decreased when exposed to Cu NPs. Moreover, Cu NPs caused a dose-dependent increase in ovarian Cu levels. The metabolomics results showed that Cu NPs caused reproductive dysfunction by altering sex hormones. In addition, in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that the ovarian cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP450), responsible for hormone production, were significantly upregulated, whereas the enzymes responsible for hormone metabolism were significantly inhibited, resulting in a metabolic imbalance in some ovarian hormones. Furthermore, the results revealed that the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways significantly participated in the regulation of ovarian CYP enzyme expression. Overall, the results of the in vivo and in vitro toxicity experiments with Cu ions, Cu NPs, and Cu MPs suggested that toxicity from nanoscale Cu particles poses a more serious reproductive threat than microscale Cu as Cu NPs could directly damage the ovary and affect the metabolism of ovarian hormones.

Evaluation of oxidative stress-mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of copper and flubendiamide: amelioration by antioxidants in vivo and in vitro

Present study was designed to evaluate toxic effects of copper (Cu) (@ 33 mg/kg b.wt.) and flubendimide (Flb) (@ 200 mg/kg b.wt.) alone and/or in combination on blood-biochemical indices, oxidative stress, and drug metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) in vivo in male Wistar rats following oral exposure continuously for 90 days and their immunotoxic (cyto-genotoxic and apoptotic) potential in vitro on thymocytes. In in vivo study, ameliorative potential of α-tocopherol was assessed, whereas α-tocopherol, curcumin, resveratrol, and catechin were evaluated for protective effect in vitro. Significantly (P < 0.05) increased AST activity and increment in total bilirubin, uric acid, creatinine, and BUN levels; however, reduction in total protein, GSH content, reduced activities of SOD and GST, and increased lipid peroxidation and GPx activity with severe degenerative changes in histopathological examination of liver and kidney in group of Cu and Flb were observed. Treatment with α-tocopherol improved biochemical variables, redox status, and histoarchitecture of liver and kidney tissues. Reduced hepatic CYP450, CYPb5, APH, UGT, and GST activities observed in both Cu and α-tocopherol alone and their combination groups, whereas significant increment in Flb alone, while α-tocopherol in combination with xenobiotics improved the activities of hepatic DMEs. Primary cell culture of thymocytes (106 cells/ml) exposed to Cu and Flb each @ 40 μM increased TUNEL+ve cells, micronuclei induction, DNA shearing, and comet formation establishes their apoptotic and genotoxic potential, whereas treatment with antioxidants showed concentration-dependent significant reduction and their order of potency on equimolar concentration (10 μM) basis is: curcumin > resveratrol > catechin = α-tocopherol.

Nanoparticle Enhancement of Natural Killer (NK) Cell-Based Immunotherapy

Simple Summary

Natural killer cells are a part of the native immune response to cancer. NK cell-based immunotherapies are an emerging strategy to kill tumor cells. This paper reviews the role of NK cells, their mechanism of action for killing tumor cells, and the receptors which could serve as potential targets for signaling. In this review, the role of nanoparticles in NK cell activation and increased cytotoxicity of NK cells against cancer are highlighted.

Abstract

Natural killer (NK) cells are one of the first lines of defense against infections and malignancies. NK cell-based immunotherapies are emerging as an alternative to T cell-based immunotherapies. Preclinical and clinical studies of NK cell-based immunotherapies have given promising results in the past few decades for hematologic malignancies. Despite these achievements, NK cell-based immunotherapies have limitations, such as limited performance/low therapeutic efficiency in solid tumors, the short lifespan of NK cells, limited specificity of adoptive transfer and genetic modification, NK cell rejection by the patient’s immune system, insignificant infiltration of NK cells into the tumor microenvironment (TME), and the expensive nature of the treatment. Nanotechnology could potentially assist with the activation, proliferation, near-real time imaging, and enhancement of NK cell cytotoxic activity by guiding their function, analyzing their performance in near-real time, and improving immunotherapeutic efficiency. This paper reviews the role of NK cells, their mechanism of action in killing tumor cells, and the receptors which could serve as potential targets for signaling. Specifically, we have reviewed five different areas of nanotechnology that could enhance immunotherapy efficiency: nanoparticle-assisted immunomodulation to enhance NK cell activity, nanoparticles enhancing homing of NK cells, nanoparticle delivery of RNAi to enhance NK cell activity, genetic modulation of NK cells based on nanoparticles, and nanoparticle activation of NKG2D, which is the master regulator of all NK cell responses.

Aluminum, Arsenic, Beryllium, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Copper, Iron, Lead, Mercury, Molybdenum, Nickel, Platinum, Thallium, Titanium, Vanadium, and Zinc: Molecular Aspects in Experimental Liver Injury

Experimental liver injury with hepatocelluar necrosis and abnormal liver tests is caused by exposure to heavy metals (HMs) like aluminum, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, thallium, titanium, vanadium, and zinc. As pollutants, HMs disturb the ecosystem, and as these substances are toxic, they may affect the health of humans and animals. HMs are not biodegradable and may be deposited preferentially in the liver. The use of animal models can help identify molecular and mechanistic steps leading to the injury. HMs commonly initiate hepatocellular overproduction of ROS (reactive oxygen species) due to oxidative stress, resulting in covalent binding of radicals to macromolecular proteins or lipids existing in membranes of subcellular organelles. Liver injury is facilitated by iron via the Fenton reaction, providing ROS, and is triggered if protective antioxidant systems are exhausted. Ferroptosis syn pyroptosis was recently introduced as mechanistic concept in explanations of nickel (Ni) liver injury. NiCl2 causes increased iron deposition in the liver, upregulation of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) protein and mRNA expression levels, downregulation of glutathione eroxidase 4 (GPX4), ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1), nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) protein, and mRNA expression levels. Nickel may cause hepatic injury through mitochondrial damage and ferroptosis, defined as mechanism of iron-dependent cell death, similar to glutamate-induced excitotoxicity but likely distinct from apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy. Under discussion were additional mechanistic concepts of hepatocellular uptake and biliary excretion of mercury in exposed animals. For instance, the organic anion transporter 3 (Oat3) and the multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Mrp2) were involved in the hepatic handling of mercury. Mercury treatment modified the expression of Mrp2 and Oat3 as assessed by immunoblotting, partially explaining its impaired biliary excretion. Concomitantly, a decrease in Oat3 abundance in the hepatocyte plasma membranes was observed that limits the hepatic uptake of mercury ions. Most importantly and shown for the first time in liver injury caused by HMs, titanium changed the diversity of gut microbiota and modified their metabolic functions, leading to increased generation of lipopolysaccharides (LPS). As endotoxins, LPS may trigger and perpetuate the liver injury at the level of gut-liver. In sum, mechanistic and molecular steps of experimental liver injury due to HM administration are complex, with ROS as the key promotional compound. However, additional concepts such as iron used in the Fenton reaction, ferroptosis, modification of transporter systems, and endotoxins derived from diversity of intestinal bacteria at the gut-liver level merit further consideration.

High-Efficiency Near-Infrared Light Responsive Antibacterial System for Synergistic Ablation of Bacteria and Biofilm

Bacterial infection is seriously threatening human health, and the design of high-efficiency and good biocompatibility antibacterial agents is an urgent problem to be solved. However, with the emergence of drug-resistant bacteria, the existing antibacterial agents have low killing efficiency, and the formation of biofilms has further weakened the therapeutic effect. Herein, we constructed an efficient antibacterial system mediated by near-infrared light for synergistic antibacterial and biofilm dissipation. Specifically, the ZnO/Ti₃C₂T_x with heterojunction was synthesized by hydrothermal growth of ZnO on the surface of lamellar Ti₃C₂T_x-MXene. The prepared ZnO/Ti₃C₂T_x had better photothermal ability than ZnO and Ti₃C₂T_x, respectively. The local thermal effect can not only destroy the integrity of the bacterial membrane but also promote the release of Zn²⁺ ions and further improve the antibacterial performance. ZnO/Ti₃C₂T_x achieved a 100% sterilization rate (better than either ZnO or Ti₃C₂T_x) at 150 μg mL^-1. The biofilm dissipation experiment further proved its excellent biofilm ablation effect. More importantly, the results of in vitro cell culture and animal experiments have demonstrated its good biological safety. In summary, this new type of nanomaterial shows strong local chemical photothermal sterilization ability and has great potential to replace traditional antibacterial agents.

Electrospinning as a Promising Process to Preserve the Quality and Safety of Meat and Meat Products

Fresh and processed meat products are staple foods worldwide. However, these products are considered perishable foods and their deterioration depends partly on the inner and external properties of meat. Beyond conventional meat preservation approaches, electrospinning has emerged as a novel effective alternative to develop active and intelligent packaging. Thus, this review aims to discuss the advantages and shortcomings of electrospinning application for quality and safety preservation of meat and processed meat products. Electrospun fibres are very versatile, and their features can be modulated to deliver functional properties such as antioxidant and antimicrobial effects resulting in shelf-life extension and in some cases product quality improvement. Compared to conventional processes, electrospun fibres provide advantages such as casting and coating in the fabrication of active systems, indicators, and sensors. The approaches for improving, stabilizing, and controlling the release of active compounds and highly sensitive, rapid, and reliable responsiveness, under changes in real-time are still challenging for innovative packaging development. Despite their advantages, the active and intelligent electrospun fibres for meat packaging are still restricted to research and not yet widely used for commercial products. Industrial validation of lab-scale achievements of electrospinning might boost their commercialisation. Safety must be addressed by evaluating the impact of electrospun fibres migration from package to foods on human health. This information will contribute into filling knowledge gaps and sustain clear regulations.

Three-dimensional (3D) liver cell models - a tool for bridging the gap between animal studies and clinical trials when screening liver accumulation and toxicity of nanobiomaterials

Despite the exciting properties and wide-reaching applications of nanobiomaterials (NBMs) in human health and medicine, their translation from bench to bedside is slow, with a predominant issue being liver accumulation and toxicity following systemic administration. In vitro 2D cell-based assays and in vivo testing are the most popular and widely used methods for assessing liver toxicity at pre-clinical stages; however, these fall short in predicting toxicity for NBMs. Focusing on in vitro and in vivo assessment, the accurate prediction of human-specific hepatotoxicity is still a significant challenge to researchers. This review describes the relationship between NBMs and the liver, and the methods for assessing toxicity, focusing on the limitations they bring in the assessment of NBM hepatotoxicity as one of the reasons defining the poor translation for NBMs. We will then present some of the most recent advances towards the development of more biologically relevant in vitro liver methods based on tissue-mimetic 3D cell models and how these could facilitate the translation of NBMs going forward. Finally, we also discuss the low public acceptance and limited uptake of tissue-mimetic 3D models in pre-clinical assessment, despite the demonstrated technical and ethical advantages associated with them.

Possible Ameliorative Effects of the Royal Jelly on Hepatotoxicity and Oxidative Stress Induced by Molybdenum Nanoparticles and/or Cadmium Chloride in Male Rats

The present study aimed to investigate the effect of the royal jelly (RJ) on hepatotoxicity induced by molybdenum nanoparticles (MoO3-NPs), cadmium chloride (CdCl2), or their combination in male rats at biochemical, inflammation, immune response, histological, and ultrastructural levels. The physicochemical properties of MoO3-NPs have been characterized, as well as their ultrastructural organization. A rat experimental model was employed to assess the liver toxicity of MoO3-NPs, even in combination with CdCl2. Different cellular studies indicate divergent mechanisms, from increased reactive oxygen species production to antioxidative damage and cytoprotective activity. Seventy male rats were allocated to groups: (i) control; (ii) MoO3-NPs (500 mg/kg); (iii) CdCl2 (6.5 mg/kg); (iv) RJ (85 mg/kg diluted in saline); (v) MoO3-NPs followed by RJ (30 min after the MoO3-NPs dose); (vi) CdCl2 followed by RJ; and (vii) a combination of MoO3-NPs and CdCl2, followed by RJ, for a total of 30 successive days. Hepatic functions, lipid profile, inflammation marker (CRP), antioxidant biomarkers (SOD, CAT, GPx, and MDA), and genotoxicity were examined. Histological changes, an immunological marker for caspase-3, and transmission electron microscope variations in the liver were also investigated to indicate liver status. The results showed that RJ alleviated the hepatotoxicity of MoO3-NPs and/or CdCl2 by improving all hepatic vitality markers. In conclusion, the RJ was more potent and effective as an antioxidant over the oxidative damage induced by the combination of MoO3-NPs and CdCl2.

Prospects for the creation of antimicrobial preparations based on copper and copper oxides nanoparticles

The spread of strains of microorganisms that are multidrug resistant to modern antimicrobial drugs is still an urgent problem in the treatment and prevention of infectious diseases and public health in general.Currently, the possibility of using metal nanopreparations in various fields of medicine is being actively studied. Nanoparticles of metals and metal oxides are promising antimicrobial agents and are attracting growing interest due to their effectiveness. Nanoscale copper metal particles have shown high antimicrobial activity againstvarious types of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, as well as fungi. Taking into account the potential of copper nanoparticles in antimicrobial therapy, we present an overview of the current state of research related to their antimicrobial properties, consideration of the mechanisms of action, key factors affecting antimicrobial activity, including the polymer matrix. The issues of toxicity and resistance to copper are considered. The advantage of copper nanoparticles over other metal nanoparticles is shown.The studies summarized in this review have shown the promise of copper nanoparticles in the creation of new antimicrobial drugs that can be used in the future to control, prevent, and treat various diseases.

Copper Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Characterization, Physiology, Toxicity and Antimicrobial Applications

Metallic nanoparticles are a new class of materials with applications in medicine, pharmaceutical and agriculture. Using biological, chemical and physical approaches, nanoparticles with amazing properties are obtained. Copper is one of the most-found elements and plays an important part in the normal functioning of organisms. Coper nanoparticles have superior antibacterial properties when comparing them to present day antibiotics. Moreover, apart from their antibacterial role, antifungal, antiviral and anticancer properties have been described. Although the mechanism of actions is not completely understood, copper nanoparticles can become a viable alternative in fighting multi-resistant bacteria strains. We hereby review the already existing data on copper nanoparticle synthesis, effects and mechanisms of action as well as toxicity.

Nanotechnology as a Processing and Packaging Tool to Improve Meat Quality and Safety

Nanoparticles are gaining momentum as a smart tool towards a safer, more cost-effective and sustainable food chain. This study aimed to provide an overview of the potential uses, preparation, properties, and applications of nanoparticles to process and preserve fresh meat and processed meat products. Nanoparticles can be used to reinforce the packaging material resulting in the improvement of sensory, functional, and nutritional aspects of meat and processed meat products. Further, these particles can be used in smart packaging as biosensors to extend the shelf-life of fresh and processed meat products and also to monitor the final quality of these products during the storage period. Nanoparticles are included in product formulation as carriers of health-beneficial and/or functional ingredients. They showed great efficiency in encapsulating bioactive ingredients and preserving their properties to ensure their functionality (e.g., antioxidant and antimicrobial) in meat products. As a result, nanoparticles can efficiently contribute to ensuring product safety and quality whilst reducing wastage and costs. Nevertheless, a wider implementation of nanotechnology in meat industry is highly related to its economic value, consumers' acceptance, and the regulatory framework. Being a novel technology, concerns over the toxicity of nanoparticles are still controversial and therefore efficient analytical tools are deemed crucial for the identification and quantification of nanocomponents in meat products. Thus, migration studies about nanoparticles from the packaging into meat and meat products are still a concern as it has implications for human health associated with their toxicity. Moreover, focused economic evaluations for implementing nanoparticles in meat packaging are crucial since the current literature is still scarce and targeted studies are needed before further industrial applications.

The Role of 20-HETE, COX, Thromboxane Receptors, and Blood Plasma Antioxidant Status in Vascular Relaxation of Copper-Nanoparticle-Fed WKY Rats

Recently, the addition of copper nanoparticles (NPs) in a daily diet (6.5 mg/kg) was studied in different animal models as a possible alternative to ionic forms. Male Wistar-Kyoto rats (24-week-old, n = 11) were fed with copper, either in the form of carbonate salt (Cu_6.5) or metal-based copper NPs (NP_6.5), for 8 weeks. The third group was fed with a half dose of each (NP_3.25 + Cu_3.25). The thoracic aorta and blood plasma was studied. Supplementation with NP_6.5 decreased the Cu (×0.7), Cu/Zn-ratio (×0.6) and catalase (CAT, ×0.7), and increased Zn (×1.2) and superoxide dismutase (SOD, ×1.4). Meanwhile, NP_3.25 + Cu_3.25 decreased the Cu/Zn-ratio (×0.7), and CAT (×0.7), and increased the daily feed intake (×1.06). Preincubation with either the selective cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitor, or the non-selective COX-1/2 inhibitor attenuated vasodilation of rat thoracic aorta in the NP_6.5 group exclusively. However, an increased vasodilator response was observed in the NP_6.5 and NP_3.25 + Cu_3.25 group of rats after preincubation with an inhibitor of 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE) formation, and the thromboxane receptor (TP) antagonist. Significant differences were observed between the NP_6.5 and NP_3.25 + Cu_3.25 groups of rats in: dietary intake, acetylcholine-induced vasodilation, and response to COX-inhibitors. Copper NPs in a standard daily dose had more significant effects on the mechanism(s) responsible for the utilization of reactive oxygen species in the blood plasma with the participation of prostanoids derived from COX-2 in the vascular relaxation. Dietary copper NPs in both doses modified vasodilation through the vasoconstrictor 20-HETE and the TP receptors.

Effects of Copper Nanoparticles on mRNA and Small RNA Expression in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HepG2) Cells

With the advancement of nanotechnology, nanoparticles are widely used in many different industrial processes and consumer products. Copper nanoparticles (Cu NPs) are among the most toxic nanomaterials. We investigated Cu NPs toxicity in Human Hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells by examining signaling pathways, and microRNA/mRNA interactions. We compared the effects of exposures to Cu NPs at various concentrations and CuCl₂ was used as a control. The number of differentially expressed mRNA did not follow a linear dose-response relationship for either Cu NPs or CuCl₂ treatments. The most significantly altered genes and pathways by Cu NPs exposure were NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2 related factor 2)-mediated oxidative stress response, protein ubiquitination, Tumor protein p53 (p53), phase I and II metabolizing enzymes, antioxidant proteins and phase III detoxifying gene pathways.Messenger RNA-microRNA interaction from MicroRNA Target Filter Analyses revealed more signaling pathways altered in Cu NPs treated samples than transcriptomics alone, including cell proliferation, DNA methylation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, apoptosis, autophagy, reactive oxygen species, inflammation, tumorigenesis, extracellular matrix/angiogenesis and protein synthesis. In contrast, in the control (CuCl₂) treated samples showed mostly changes in inflammation mainly through regulation of the Nuclear Factor Kappa-light-chain-enhancer of Activated B-cells (NFκB). Further, some RNA based parameters that showed promise as biomarkers of Cu NPs exposure including both well and lesser known genes: heme oxygenase 1 (HMOX1), heat shock protein, c-Fos proto-oncogene, DNA methyltransferases, and glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLM, part of the glutathione synthesis pathway). The differences in signaling pathways altered by the Cu NPs and CuCl₂ treatments suggest that the effects of the Cu NPs were not the results of nanomaterial dissolution to soluble copper ions.

Ex vivo exposure to different types of graphene-based nanomaterials consistently alters human blood secretome

The biomedical applications of graphene-based nanomaterials (GBN) have significantly grown in the last years. Many of these applications suppose their intravenous exposure and, in this way, GBN could encounter blood cells triggering an immunological response of unknown effects. Consequently, understanding the relationships between GBN and the immune system response should be a prerequisite for its adequate use in biomedicine. In the present study, we have conducted a little explored ex vivo exposure method in order to study the complexity of the secretome given by the interactions between GBN and blood cells. Blood samples from different healthy donors were exposed to three different types of GBN widely used in the biomedical field. In this sense, graphene oxide (GO), graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) and a panel of 105 proteins representatives of the blood secretome were evaluated. The results show broad changes in both the cytokines number and the expression levels, with important changes in inflammatory response markers. Furthermore, the indirect soft-agar assay was used as a tool to unravel the global functional impact of the found secretome changes. Our results indicate that the GBN-induced altered secretome can modify the natural anchorage-independent growth capacity of HeLa cells, used as a model. As a conclusion, this study describes an innovative approach to study the potential harmful effects of GBN, providing relevant data to be considered in the biomedical context when GBN are planned to be used in patients.

Protective Effect of Wheat and Barley Grass Against the Acute Toxicological Effects of the Concurrent Administration of Excessive Heavy Metals in Drinking Water on the Rats Liver and Brain

Heavy metal contaminated water is a great concern because of its high toxiciy, non-biodegradability, and bioaccumulation. Therefore, non-contaminated water is fundamental for a healthy life. Special attention is paid to the health-promoting ingredients of germinated whole cereal products. This study aimed to (1) examine the potentially harmful effects of Cu, Mn, and Zn on rat livers and brains, and (2) the potentially protective action of wheat and barley grasses against the expected harmful effects of these metals. The rats were treated with water contaminated by heavy metals (HMs) and germinated wheat and barley for 60 days. The rat liver functions and histopathological examinations were analyzed. Comet assay was evaluated to assess the damage in the DNA of rat livers and brains. The results indicated a significant alteration in liver functions in rats exposed to HMs; however, wheat and barley grasses at high doses decreased the harmful effects. An insignificant difference was noticed in total protein, albumin, and globulin of rats treated with HMs compared with the control. A significant increase in the serum and liver levels of HMs was recorded; however, they were reduced by wheat and barley grasses. Rat livers treated with HMs exhibited severe histological effects. The groups treated with wheat and barley grasses showed a normal liver architecture. A significant increase in DNA damage in the livers and brains was observed in rats treated with HMs, which was reduced when treated with wheat and barley grasses. Thus, using germinated seeds is promising to avoid damaging of HMs.

Ultra-efficient Antibacterial System Based on Photodynamic Therapy and CO Gas Therapy for Synergistic Antibacterial and Ablation Biofilms

In recent years, with the emergence of various kinds of drug-resistant bacteria, existing antibiotics have become inefficient in killing these bacteria, and the formation of biofilms has further weakened the therapeutic effect. More problematically, the massive use and abuse of antibiotics have caused severe side effects. Thus, the development of ultra-efficient and safe antibacterial systems is urgently needed. Herein, a photodynamic therapy (PDT)-driven CO-controlled delivery system (Ce6&CO@FADP) is developed for synergistic antibacterial and ablation biofilms. Ce6&CO@FADP is constructed using a fluorinated amphiphilic dendritic peptide (FADP) and physically loaded with Ce6 and CORM-401. After efficiently entering the bacteria, Ce6&CO@FADP can rapidly release CO intracellularly by the massive consumption of the H₂O₂ generated during the PDT process, without affecting the generation of singlet oxygen (¹O₂). As such, the combination of CO and ¹O₂ exerts notable synergistic antibacterial and biofilm ablation effects both in vitro and in vivo (including subcutaneous bacterial infection and biofilm catheter models) experiments. More importantly, all biosafety assessments suggest the good biocompatibility of Ce6&CO@FADP. Together, these results reveal that Ce6&CO@FADP is an efficient and safe antibacterial system, which has essential application prospects for the treatment of bacterial infections and ablation of biofilms in vivo.

All Roads Lead to the Liver: Metal Nanoparticles and Their Implications for Liver Health

Metal nanoparticles (NPs) are frequently encountered in daily life, and concerns have been raised about their toxicity and safety. Among which, they naturally accumulate in the liver after introduction into the body, independent of the route of administration. Some NPs exhibit intrinsic pharmaceutical effects that are related to their physical parameters, and their inadvertent accumulation in the liver can exert strong effects on liver function and structure. Even as such physiological consequences are often categorically dismissed as toxic and deleterious, there are cell type-specific and NP-specific biological responses that elicit distinctive pharmacological consequences that can be harnessed for good. By limiting the scope of discussion to metallic NPs, this work attempts to provide a balanced perspective on their safety in the liver, and discusses both possible therapeutic benefits and potential accidental liver damage arising from their interaction with specific parenchymal and nonparenchymal cell types in the liver.