A [60]fullerene nanoconjugate with gemcitabine: synthesis, biophysical properties and biological evaluation for treating pancreatic cancer

Utilizing nanomaterials for cancer treatment and diagnosis: an overview

Cancer is a deadly disease with complex pathophysiological nature and is the leading cause of death worldwide. Traditional diagnosis methods often detect cancer at a considerably critical stage and the conventional methods of treatment like chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy have several limitations, multidrug resistance, cytotoxicity, and lack of specificity are a few examples. These pose substantial challenge for effective and favourable cancer treatment. The advent of nanotechnology has revolutionized the face of cancer diagnosis and treatment. Nanoparticles, which have a size range of 1-100 nm, are biocompatible and have special optical, magnetic, and electrical capabilities, less toxic, more stable, exhibit permeability and retention effect, and are used for precise targeting. There are several classes of nanoparticles each having their own sets of unique properties. NPs have played an important role in the drug delivery system, overcoming the multi-drug resistance, reducing the side-effects as seen in conventional therapeutic methods and hence able to solve the limitations of conventional methods of diagnosis and treatment. This review discusses the four major classes of nanoparticles (Lipid based NPs, Carbon NPs and Metallic NPs and Polymeric NPs): their discovery and introduction in medical field, unique properties and characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, sub-categories and characteristics of these categories, major area of application in Cancer diagnosis and treatment, and latest methodologies where these are used in cancer treatment.

The Application of Nanomaterials in the Treatment of Pancreatic-Related Diseases

Pancreatic diseases, typically including pancreatic cancer, pancreatitis, and diabetes, pose enormous threats to people's lives and health. To date, therapeutics with high therapeutic efficacy and low side effects are still challenging. With the development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials have successfully been applied in pancretic disease treatment. Here, we first introduce the diversity of nanomaterials and the effects of their different physicochemical properties on pancreatic function. Following this, we analyze the potential of nanomaterials to enhance pancreatic targeting by overcoming the challenges of traditional delivery methods through surface modifications, structural adjustments, and optimized drug loading. Then, we introduce the application of structurally optimized nanomaterials to pancreatic-related diseases. For instance, on pancreatic cancer (as drug delivery platforms, for the promotion of radiation therapy, and as multifunctional tools), pancreatitis (as drug delivery systems, anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic agents), and diabetes (as insulin delivery carriers, for protecting pancreatic β cells, and for improving insulin resistance). Through analysis of the progress of current research, we summarize how nanomaterials can enhance treatment efficacy while minimizing side effects. Finally, we look forward to the prospects of nanomaterials in pancreatic disease treatment.

Fullerene Derivatives for Tumor Treatment: Mechanisms and Application

Fullerenes hold tremendous potential as alternatives to conventional chemotherapy or radiotherapy for tumor treatment due to their abilities to photodynamically kill tumor cells, destroy the tumor vasculature, inhibit tumor metastasis and activate anti-tumor immune responses, while protecting normal tissue through antioxidative effects. The symmetrical hollow molecular structures of fullerenes with abundant C=C bonds allow versatile chemical modification with diverse functional groups, metal clusters and biomacromolecules to synthesize a wide range of fullerene derivatives with increased water solubility, improved biocompatibility, enhanced photodynamic properties and stronger targeting abilities. This review introduces the anti-tumor mechanisms of fullerenes and summarizes the most recent works on the functionalization of fullerenes and the application of fullerene derivatives in tumor treatment. This review aims to serve as a valuable reference for further development and clinical application of anti-tumor fullerene derivatives.

Recent advances in nanoparticle applications in respiratory disorders: a review

Various nanoparticles are used in the discovery of new nanomedicine to overcome the shortages of conventional drugs. Therefore, this article presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the effects of nanoparticle-based drugs in the treatment of respiratory disorders, including both basic and clinical studies. Databases, including PubMed, Web of Knowledge, and Scopus, were searched until the end of August 2022 regarding the effect of nanoparticles on respiratory diseases. As a new tool, nanomedicine offered promising applications for the treatment of pulmonary diseases. The basic composition and intrinsic characteristics of nanomaterials showed their effectiveness in treating pulmonary diseases. The efficiency of different nanomedicines has been demonstrated in experimental animal models of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary fibrosis (PF), lung cancer, lung infection, and other lung disorders, confirming their function in the improvement of respiratory disorders. Various types of nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, polymeric nanomaterials, liposomes, quantum dots, and metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, have demonstrated therapeutic effects on respiratory disorders, which may lead to new possible remedies for various respiratory illnesses that could increase drug efficacy and decrease side effects.

Multifunctional Carbon-Based Nanoparticles: Theranostic Applications in Cancer Therapy and Diagnosis

Cancer diagnosis and treatment are the most critical challenges in modern medicine. Conventional cancer treatments no longer meet the needs of the health field due to the high rate of mutations and epigenetic factors that have caused drug resistance in tumor cells. Hence, the search for unique methods and factors is quickly expanding. The development of nanotechnology in medicine and the search for a system to integrate treatment and diagnosis to achieve an effective approach to overcome the known limitations of conventional treatment methods have led to the emergence of theranostic nanoparticles and nanosystems based on these nanoparticles. An influential group of these nanoparticles is carbon-based theranostic nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have received significant attention due to their unique properties, such as electrical conductivity, high strength, excellent surface chemistry, and wide range of structural diversity (graphene, nanodiamond, carbon quantum dots, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and carbon nanohorns). These nanoparticles were widely used in various fields, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, imaging, and biosensors. In this review, we discuss in detail the recent features and advances in carbon-based theranostic nanoparticles and the advanced and diverse strategies used to treat diseases with these nanoparticles.

Fullerenes for the treatment of cancer: an emerging tool

Cancer is a most common cause of mortality globally. Available medicines possess severe side effects owing to their non-specific targeting. Hence, there is a need of an alternative in the healthcare system that should have high efficacy with the least side effects, also having the ability to achieve site-specific targeting and be reproducible. This is possible with the help of fullerenes. Fullerenes are having the unique physicochemical and photosensitizer properties. This article discusses the synthesis, functionalization, mechanism, various properties, and applications of C60 fullerenes in the treatment of cancer. The review article also addresses the various factors influencing the activity of fullerenes including the environmental conditions, toxicity profile, and future prospective.

In Situ Cellular Localization of Nonfluorescent [60]Fullerene Nanomaterial in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells

Cellular localization of carbon nanomaterials in cancer cells is essential information for better understanding their interaction with biological targets and a crucial factor for further evaluating their biological properties as nanovehicles or nanotherapeutics. Recently, increasing efforts to develop promising fullerene nanotherapeutics for cancer nanotechnology have been made. However, the main challenge regarding studying their cellular effects is the lack of effective methods for their visualization and determining their cellular fate due to the limited fluorescence of buckyball scaffolds. Herein, we developed a method for cellular localization of nonfluorescent and water-soluble fullerene nanomaterials using the in vitro click chemistry approach. First, we synthesized a triple-bonded fullerene probe (TBC₆₀ser), which was further used as a starting material for 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition using 3-azido-7-hydroxycoumarin and sulfo-cyanine5 azide fluorophores to create fluorescent fullerene triazoles. In this work, we characterized the structurally triple-bonded [60]fullerene derivative and confirmed its high symmetry (T_h) and the successful formation of fullerene triazoles by spectroscopic techniques (i.e., ultraviolet–visible, fluorescence, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopies) and mass spectrometry. The created fluorescent fullerene triazoles were successfully localized in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line using fluorescent microscopy. Overall, our findings demonstrate that TBC₆₀ser localizes in the lysosomes of MCF-7 cells, with only a small affinity to mitochondria.

Synthesis and applications of [60]fullerene nanoconjugate with 5-aminolevulinic acid and its glycoconjugate as drug delivery vehicles

The 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) prodrug is widely used in clinical applications, primarily for skin cancer treatments and to visualize brain tumors in neurosurgery. Unfortunately, its applications are limited by unfavorable pharmacological properties, especially low lipophilicity; therefore, efficient nanovehicles are needed. For this purpose, we synthesized and characterized two novel water-soluble fullerene nanomaterials containing 5-ALA and d-glucuronic acid components. Their physicochemical properties were investigated using NMR, XPS, ESI mass spectrometry, as well as TEM and SEM techniques. In addition, HPLC and fluorescence measurements were performed to evaluate the biological activity of the fullerene nanomaterials in 5-ALA delivery and photodynamic therapy (PDT); additional detection of selected mRNA targets was carried out using the qRT-PCR methodology. The cellular response to the [60]fullerene conjugates resulted in increased levels of ABCG2 and PEPT-1 genes, as determined by qRT-PCR analysis. Therefore, we designed a combination PDT approach based on two fullerene materials, C₆₀-ALA and C₆₀-ALA-GA, along with the ABCG2 inhibitor Ko143.

Antitumor Activity and Potential Mechanism of Novel Fullerene Derivative Nanoparticles

The development of novel nanoparticles as a new generation therapeutic drug platform is an active field of chemistry and cancer research. In recent years, fullerene nanoparticles have received extensive attention due to their unique physical and chemical properties. Properly modified fullerene nanoparticles have excellent biocompatibility and significant anti-tumor activity, which makes them have broad application prospects in the field of cancer therapy. Therefore, understanding the anti-tumor mechanism of fullerene nanoparticles is of great significance for the design and development of anti-tumor drugs with low toxicity and high targeting. This review has focused on various anti-tumor mechanisms of fullerene derivatives and discusses their toxicity and their distribution in organisms. Finally, the review points out some urgent problems that need solution before fullerene derivatives as a new generation of anti-tumor nano-drug platform enter clinical research.

Mass spectrometry for multi-dimensional characterization of natural and synthetic materials at the nanoscale

Characterization of materials at the nanoscale plays a crucial role in in-depth understanding the nature and processes of the substances. Mass spectrometry (MS) has characterization capabilities for nanomaterials (NMs) and nanostructures by offering reliable multi-dimensional information consisting of accurate mass, isotopic, and molecular structural information. In the last decade, MS has emerged as a powerful nano-characterization technique. This review comprehensively summarizes the capabilities of MS in various aspects of nano-characterization that greatly enrich the toolbox of nano research. Compared with other characterization techniques, MS has unique capabilities for real-time monitoring and tracking reaction intermediates and by-products. Moreover, MS has shown application potential in some novel aspects, such as MS imaging of the biodistribution and fate of NMs in animals and humans, stable isotopic tracing of NMs, and risk assessment of NMs, which deserve update and integration into the current knowledge framework of nano-characterization.

Recent advances in carbon nanomaterials for biomedical applications: A review

With the emergence of new pathogens like coronavirus disease 2019 and the prevalence of cancer as one of the leading causes of mortality globally, the effort to develop appropriate materials to address these challenges is a critical research area. Researchers around the world are investigating new types of materials and biological systems to fight against various diseases that affect humans and animals. Carbon nanostructures with their properties of straightforward functionalization, capability for drug loading, biocompatibility, and antiviral properties have become a major focus of biomedical researchers. However, reducing toxicity, enhancing biocompatibility, improving dispersibility, and enhancing water solubility have been challenging for carbon-based biomedical systems. The goal of this article is to provide a review on the latest progress involving the use of carbon nanostructures, namely fullerenes, graphene, and carbon nanotubes, for drug delivery, cancer therapy, and antiviral applications.

Interactions of a Water-Soluble Glycofullerene with Glucose Transporter 1. Analysis of the Cellular Effects on a Pancreatic Tumor Model

In recent years, carbon nanomaterials have been intensively investigated for their possible applications in biomedical studies, especially as drug delivery vehicles. Several surface modifications can modulate the unique molecular structure of [60]fullerene derivatives, as well as their physicochemical properties. For this reason, covalent modifications that would enable a greater water solubilization of the fullerene buckyball have been rapidly investigated. The most exciting applications of fullerene nanomaterials are as drug delivery vectors, photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy (PDT), astransfection or MRI contrast agents, antimicrobials and antioxidants. From these perspectives, the glucose derivatives of [60]fullerene seem to be an interesting carbon nanomaterial for biological studies. It is well-known that cancer cells are characterized by an increased glucose uptake and it has also been previously reported that the glucose transporters (GLUTs) are overexpressed in several types of cancers, which make them attractive molecular targets for many drugs. This study explored the use of a highly water-soluble glycofullerene (called Sweet-C₆₀) in pancreatic cancer studies. Here, we describe the PANC-1 cell proliferation, migration, metabolic activity and glycolysis rate after incubations with different concentrations of Sweet-C₆₀. The final results did not show any influence of the Sweet-C₆₀ on various cancer cellular events and glycolysis, suggesting that synthesized glycofullerene is a promising drug delivery vehicle for treating pancreatic cancer.

DFT calculations towards the geometry optimization, electronic structure, infrared spectroscopy and UV-vis analyses of Favipiravir adsorption on the first-row transition metals doped fullerenes; a new strategy for COVID-19 therapy

With the global epidemic of the COVID-19 virus, extensive and rapid research on drug therapy is underway around the world. In this regard, one of the most widely studied drugs is Favipiravir. Our aim in this paper is to conduct comprehensive research based on the Density Functional Theory (DFT) on the potential of metallofullerenes as suitable drug carriers. The surface interaction of Favipiravir with organometallic compound resulted by doping of the five transition metals of the first row of the periodic table (Ti, Cr, Cr, Fe, Ni, and Zn) was examined in depth to select the most suitable metallofullerenes. First, the adsorption geometries of Favipiravir drug onto each metallofullerene were deeply investigated. It was found that Cr-, Fe-, and Ni-doped fullerenes provide the excellent adsorbent property with adsorption energies of -148.2, -149.6, and -146.6 kJ/mol, respectively. The Infrared spectroscopy (IR) study was conducted to survey the stretching vibration of bonds involving in the systems, specialty the CO in the drug, CM in the metallofullerene, and MO in the metallofullerene-drug complex. Finally, the UV-vis analysis showed that the absorption spectra for the studied systems may be attributed to the transition from π-π* and/or n-π*.

In-silico modelling of fullerene and fullerene adsorbed by nO2 molecules (n(O2)@Cm with n = 1, 2, 4 and m = 48 and 60) as potential SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors

Abstract

COVID-19 pandemic started more than a year ago and has infected more than 115 million of people from ~210 countries and >2.5 million of deaths worldwide being reported without any commercial and effective treatment or vaccine being yet released. However, recent studies on nanomaterials such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes and graphene showed that they possess anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-oxidant and anti-HIV properties. Herein, the interactions which established between the fullerenes C_m (m = 48, 60, 70, 80, 84 and 86) and the spike protein (SP) of SARS-CoV-2 and the human ACE2 receptor have been investigated based on the density functional theory (DFT) method with the CAM-B3LYP functional and the 6-31G* basis. The results of this study show that C48 exhibited as potential inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2. Because of the presence of heteroatoms on the surface of fullerenes which systematically reduce energy gaps, which in turn increase their reactivities. The oxygen adsorbed by fullerenes increases the number of non-covalent contacts and involves a large number of hydrogen bonds, while decreasing the binding energies. Thus, the hACE2-SP-4O₂@C60 complex is strongly recommended for inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 in the final phase of contamination.

Graphic abstract

Stabilizing interactions between fullerenes and the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2.