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Taborelli M, Suligoi B, Serraino D, Frova L, Grande E, Toffolutti F, Regine V, Pappagallo M, Pugliese L, Grippo F, Zucchetto A. Increased kidney disease mortality among people with AIDS versus the general population: a population-based cohort study in Italy, 2006-2018. BMJ Open 2022; 12:e064970. [PMID: 36456002 PMCID: PMC9716863 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-064970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aimed to assess whether an excess mortality related to kidney and other urinary tract diseases exists among Italian people with AIDS (PWA), as compared with the general population without AIDS (non-PWA). DESIGN Population-based, retrospective cohort study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS We conducted a nationwide study including 9481 Italian PWA, aged 15-74 years, reported to the National AIDS Registry between 2006 and 2018. METHODS Vital status and causes of death were retrieved by record linkage with the National Register of Causes of Death up to 2018. Excess mortality for PWA versus non-PWA was estimated through sex-standardised and age-standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) with corresponding 95% CIs. RESULTS Among 2613 deceased PWA, 262 (10.0%) reported at least one urinary tract disease at death, including 254 (9.7%) non-cancer diseases-mostly renal failures (225 cases, 8.6%)-and 9 cancers (0.3%). The overall SMR for non-cancer urinary tract diseases was 15.3 (95% CI 13.4 to 17.3) with statistically significant SMRs for acute (SMR=22.3, 95% CI 18.0 to 27.4), chronic (SMR=8.4, 95% CI 6.0 to 11.3), and unspecified renal failure (SMR=13.8, 95% CI 11.2 to 16.8). No statistically significant excess mortality was detected for urinary tract cancers (SMR=1.7, 95% CI 0.8 to 3.3). The SMRs were particularly elevated among PWA aged <50 years, injecting drug users, or those with the first HIV-positive test >6 months before AIDS diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS The excess mortality related to non-cancer kidney and other urinary tract diseases reported among PWA highlights the importance of implementing the recommendation for screening, diagnosis and management of such conditions among this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Taborelli
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Barbara Suligoi
- Centro Operativo AIDS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy
| | - Diego Serraino
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Luisa Frova
- Integrated system for health, social assistance and welfare, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Grande
- Integrated system for health, social assistance and welfare, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Rome, Italy
| | - Federica Toffolutti
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
| | - Vincenza Regine
- Centro Operativo AIDS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy
| | - Marilena Pappagallo
- Integrated system for health, social assistance and welfare, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Rome, Italy
| | - Lucia Pugliese
- Centro Operativo AIDS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Roma, Italy
| | - Francesco Grippo
- Integrated system for health, social assistance and welfare, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Zucchetto
- Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano (CRO) IRCCS, Aviano, Italy
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Leite PHAC, Coelho LE, Cardoso SW, Moreira RI, Veloso VG, Grinsztejn B, Luz PM. Early mortality in a cohort of people living with HIV in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2004-2015: a persisting problem. BMC Infect Dis 2022; 22:475. [PMID: 35581552 PMCID: PMC9115995 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-022-07451-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Global mortality from AIDS-related diseases has been declining since 2005, resulting primarily from the widespread use and early initiation of combination antiretroviral therapy. Despite the significant improvements, high rates of early mortality, usually defined as that occurring within the 1st year of entry to care, have been observed, especially in resource-limited settings. This analysis draws upon data from an observational cohort of people with HIV (PWH) followed at a reference center for HIV/AIDS care and research in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to identify the pattern and factors associated with early mortality. Methods The study population includes PWH aged 18 or older followed at the National Institute of Infectious Diseases Evandro Chagas who were enrolled between 2004 and 2015. The primary outcome was early mortality, defined as deaths occurring within 1 year of inclusion in the cohort, considering two follow-up periods: 0 to 90 days (very early mortality) and 91 to 365 days (early mortality). Cox proportional hazards models were used to identify the variables associated with the hazard of very early and early mortality. Results Overall, 3879 participants contributed with 3616.4 person-years of follow-up. Of 220 deaths, 132 happened in the first 90 days and 88 between 91 and 365 days. Very early mortality rate ratios (MRR) show no statistically significant temporal differences between the periods 2004–2006 to 2013–2015. In contrast, for early mortality, a statistically significant decreasing trend was observed: mortality rates in the periods 2004–2006 (MR = 5.5; 95% CI 3.9–7.8) and 2007–2009 (MR = 3.9; 95% CI 2.7–5.7) were approximately four and three-fold higher when compared to 2013–2015 (MR = 1.4; 95% CI 0.7–2.7). Low CD4 count and prior AIDS-defining illness were strongly associated with higher hazard ratios of death, especially when considering very early mortality. Conclusions The present study shows an excess of mortality in the 1st year of follow-up with no changes in the mortality rates within 90 days among PWH from Rio de Janeiro. We note the significant impact of initiating treatment with immunosuppression, as evidenced by the increased risk of death among those with low CD4 cell count and with AIDS-defining illnesses. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-022-07451-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro H A C Leite
- Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sergio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. .,Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil.
| | - Lara E Coelho
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Sandra W Cardoso
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo I Moreira
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Valdilea G Veloso
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Beatriz Grinsztejn
- Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Paula M Luz
- Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública Sergio Arouca, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, 21040-900, Brazil
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Suligoi B, Virdone S, Taborelli M, Frova L, Grande E, Grippo F, Pappagallo M, Regine V, Pugliese L, Serraino D, Zucchetto A. Excess mortality related to circulatory system diseases and diabetes mellitus among Italian AIDS patients vs. non-AIDS population: a population-based cohort study using the multiple causes-of-death approach. BMC Infect Dis 2018; 18:428. [PMID: 30153797 PMCID: PMC6114052 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-018-3336-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic diseases, chiefly cancers and circulatory system diseases (CSDs), have become the leading non-AIDS-related causes of death among HIV-infected people, as in the general population. After our previous report of an excess mortality for several non-AIDS-defining cancers, we now aim to assess whether people with AIDS (PWA) experience also an increased mortality for CSDs and diabetes mellitus (DM), as compared to the non-AIDS general population (non-PWA). Methods A nationwide, population-based, retrospective cohort study was conducted including 5285 Italians, aged 15−74 years, who were diagnosed with AIDS between 2006 and 2011. Multiple cause-of-death (MCoD) data, i.e. all conditions reported in death certificates, were retrieved through record-linkage with the National Register of Causes of Death up to 2011. Using MCoD data, sex- and age-standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated by dividing the observed number of PWA reporting a specific disease among MCoD to the expected number, estimated on the basis of mortality rates (based on MCoD) of non-PWA. Results Among 1229 deceased PWA, CSDs were mentioned in 201 (16.4%) certificates and DM in 46 (3.7%) certificates among the various causes of death. These values corresponded to a 13-fold higher mortality related to CSDs (95% CI 10.8–14.4) and DM (95% CI: 9.5–17.4) as compared to 952,019 deceased non-PWA. Among CSDs, statistically significant excess mortality emerged for hypertension (23 deaths, SMR = 6.3, 95% CI: 4.0–9.4), ischemic heart diseases (39 deaths, SMR = 6.1, 95% CI: 4.4–8.4), other forms of heart diseases (88 deaths, SMR = 13.4, 95% CI: 10.8–16.5), and cerebrovascular diseases (42 deaths, SMR = 13.4, 95% CI: 9.7–18.2). The SMRs were particularly elevated among PWA aged < 50 years and those infected through drug injection. Conclusions The use of MCoD data disclosed the fairly high mortality excess related to several CSDs and DM among Italian PWA as compared to non-PWA. Study findings also indicate to start preventive strategies for such diseases at a younger age among AIDS patients than in the general population and with focus on drug users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Suligoi
- Centro Operativo AIDS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, via Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Saverio Virdone
- Unit of Cancer Epidemiology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano, IRCCS, via Gallini 2, 33081, Aviano, PN, Italy
| | - Martina Taborelli
- Unit of Cancer Epidemiology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano, IRCCS, via Gallini 2, 33081, Aviano, PN, Italy
| | - Luisa Frova
- Integrated system for health, social assistance, welfare and justice, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Grande
- Integrated system for health, social assistance, welfare and justice, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Grippo
- Integrated system for health, social assistance, welfare and justice, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy
| | - Marilena Pappagallo
- Integrated system for health, social assistance, welfare and justice, Istituto Nazionale di Statistica, viale Liegi 13, 00198, Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenza Regine
- Centro Operativo AIDS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, via Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Lucia Pugliese
- Centro Operativo AIDS, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, via Regina Elena 299, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - Diego Serraino
- Unit of Cancer Epidemiology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano, IRCCS, via Gallini 2, 33081, Aviano, PN, Italy
| | - Antonella Zucchetto
- Scientific Directorate, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico di Aviano, IRCCS, via Gallini 2, 33081, Aviano, PN, Italy.
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Cammarota S, Citarella A, Manzoli L, Flacco ME, Parruti G. Impact of comorbidity on the risk and cost of hospitalization in HIV-infected patients: real-world data from Abruzzo Region. CLINICOECONOMICS AND OUTCOMES RESEARCH 2018; 10:389-398. [PMID: 30087571 PMCID: PMC6061204 DOI: 10.2147/ceor.s162625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Due to the success of antiretroviral therapy, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection has been transformed into a lifelong condition. In Italy, little is known about the impact of comorbidities (CMs) on the risk of hospitalization and related costs for people who live with HIV (PWLHIV). The objective of the study was to quantify the risk of hospitalization and costs associated with CMs in an Italian cohort of PWLHIV. Methods The study population included subjects aged ≥18 years with HIV infection, identified in the Abruzzo’s hospital discharge database among files stored from 2004 until 2013 and then followed up until December 2015. Patients’ CMs (Charlson Comorbidity Index [CCI)] were extracted from International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes in the hospital discharge abstracts. Poisson regression was used to compare the incidence rate of hospital admissions in patients with and without each CM class. Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were adjusted for age, sex and the other CMs. A generalized linear model under gamma distribution was used to estimate adjusted mean hospital costs. Costs were derived from official Italian Diagnosis-related group (DRG) based reimbursements. Results Among 1,026 HIV patients identified (mean age 47 years), 30% had at least one CM and 14.5% underwent hospital admission during the follow-up period. The risk of acute hospitalization significantly increased among patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection (adjusted IRR 1.98; 95% CI: 1.59–2.47), renal (adjusted IRR 2.27; 95% CI: 1.45–3.56), liver (adjusted IRR 2.21; 1.57–3.13) and chronic pulmonary CMs (adjusted IRR 2.31; 1.63–3.32). Adjusted mean hospital costs were €2,494 in patients without CMs and €4,422 and €9,734 in those with CCI=1 or CCI ≥2, respectively. Conclusion The presence of renal, liver and chronic pulmonary CMs, as well as HCV coinfection doubled the risk of hospitalization in the PWLHIV cohort. A CCI ≥2 is associated with a fourfold increase in hospitalization costs. Our study provides new evidence that CMs in PWLHIV increase the risk of hospitalization and local health service facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Cammarota
- LinkHealth s.r.l., Health Economics, Outcomes & Epidemiology, Naples, Italy
| | - Anna Citarella
- LinkHealth s.r.l., Health Economics, Outcomes & Epidemiology, Naples, Italy
| | - Lamberto Manzoli
- Department of Medicine Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.,Regional Healthcare Agency of Abruzzo, Pescara, Italy
| | | | - Giustino Parruti
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Pescara General Hospital, Pescara, Italy,
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-AIDS-defining cancers (non-ADCs) have become the leading non-AIDS-related cause of death among people with HIV/AIDS. We aimed to quantify the excess risk of cancer-related deaths among Italian people with AIDS (PWA), as compared with people without AIDS (non-PWA). METHODS A nationwide, population-based, retrospective cohort study was carried out among 5285 Italian PWA, aged 15-74 years, diagnosed between 2006 and 2011. Date of death and multiple-cause-of-death data were retrieved up to December 2011. Excess mortality, as compared with non-PWA, was estimated using sex- and age-standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) and the corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS Among 1229 deceased PWA, 10.3% reported non-ADCs in the death certificate, including lung (3.1%), and liver (1.4%), cancers. A 7.3-fold (95% CI: 6.1 to 8.7) excess mortality was observed for all non-ADCs combined. Statistically significant SMRs emerged for specific non-ADCs, ie, anus (5 deaths, SMR = 227.6, 95% CI: 73.9 to 531.0), Hodgkin lymphoma (12 deaths, SMR = 122.0, 95% CI: 63.0 to 213.0), unspecified uterus (4 deaths, SMR = 52.5, 95% CI: 14.3 to 134.5), liver (17 deaths, SMR = 13.2, 95% CI: 7.7 to 21.1), skin melanoma (4 deaths, SMR = 10.9, 95% CI: 3.0 to 27.8), lung (38 deaths, SMR = 8.0, 95% CI: 5.7 to 11.0), head and neck (9 deaths, SMR = 7.8, 95% CI: 3.6 to 14.9), leukemia (5 deaths, SMR = 7.6, 95% CI: 2.4 to 17.7), and colon-rectum (10 deaths, SMR = 5.4, 95% CI: 2.6 to 10.0). SMRs for non-ADCs were particularly elevated among PWA infected through injecting drug use. CONCLUSION This population-based study documented extremely elevated risks of death for non-ADCs among PWA. These findings stress the need of preventive interventions for both virus-related and non-virus-related cancers among HIV-infected individuals.
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Searching for novel N 1-substituted benzimidazol-2-ones as non-nucleoside HIV-1 RT inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2017; 25:3861-3870. [PMID: 28559060 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2017.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) represent an integral part of the currently available combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) contributing to reduce the AIDS-mortality and turned the disease from lethal to chronic. In this context we recently reported a series of 6-chloro-1-(3-methylphenylsulfonyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-ones as potent non-nucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. In this paper, we describe the design and the synthesis of two novel series of benzimidazolone analogues in which the linker moiety between the phenyl ring and the sulfonyl group was modified and new small lipophilic groups on the benzyl sulfonyl pendant were introduced. All the new obtained compounds were evaluated as RT inhibitors and were also tested against RTs containing single amino acid mutations. Finally, molecular docking studies were performed in order to rationalize the observed activity of the most promising compound.
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Parashar S, Collins AB, Montaner JSG, Hogg RS, Milloy MJ. Reducing rates of preventable HIV/AIDS-associated mortality among people living with HIV who inject drugs. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2016; 11:507-513. [PMID: 27254749 PMCID: PMC5055433 DOI: 10.1097/coh.0000000000000297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The modern antiretroviral therapy (ART) era has seen substantial reductions in mortality among people living with HIV. However, HIV-positive people who inject drugs (PWIDs) continue to experience high rates of suboptimal HIV-related outcomes. We review recent findings regarding factors contributing to premature and preventable mortality among HIV-positive PWID, and describe the promise of interventions to improve survival in this group. RECENT FINDINGS The current leading causes of death among HIV-positive PWID are HIV/AIDS-related causes, overdose, and liver-related causes, including infection with hepatitis C virus. Elevated mortality levels in this population are driven by social-structural barriers to ART access and adherence, particularly criminalization and stigmatization of drug use. In contexts where opioid substitution therapy and ART adherence support programs are widely accessible, evidence highlights comparable levels of survival among HIV-positive PWID and people living with HIV who do not inject drugs. SUMMARY The life-saving benefits of ART can be realized among HIV-positive PWID when it is paired with strategies that address barriers to evidence-based medical care. Joint administration of ART and opioid substitution therapy, as well as repeal of punitive laws that criminalize drug users, are urgently needed to reduce HIV and injection-related mortality among PWID.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surita Parashar
- aBritish Columbia Centre for Excellence in HIV/AIDS, St. Paul's Hospital, VancouverbFaculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, BurnabycDepartment of Medicine, University of British Columbia, St. Paul's Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Siddiqi AEA, Irene Hall H, Hu X, Song R. Population-Based Estimates of Life Expectancy After HIV Diagnosis: United States 2008-2011. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2016; 72:230-6. [PMID: 26890283 PMCID: PMC4876430 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000000960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Using National HIV surveillance system data, we estimated life expectancy and average years of life lost (AYLL) among persons diagnosed with HIV infection during 2008-2011. METHODS Population-based surveillance data, restricted to persons with diagnosed HIV infection aged 13 years or older, from all 50 states and Washington, D.C. were used to estimate life expectancy after HIV diagnosis using the life table method. Generated estimates were compared with life expectancy in the general population in the same calendar year to calculate AYLL. Life expectancy and AYLL were also estimated for subgroups by age, sex, and race/ethnicity. RESULTS The overall life expectancy after HIV diagnosis in the United States increased by 3.43 years from 25.43 (95% CI: 25.37 to 25.49) in 2008 to 28.86 (95% CI: 28.80 to 28.92) in 2011. Improvements were observed irrespective of sex, race/ethnicity, transmission category, and stage of disease at diagnosis, though the extent of improvement varied by different characteristics. Based on the life expectancy in the general population, in 2010, the AYLL were 12.8 years for males and 16.5 years for females. By race/ethnicity, on average, blacks (13.3 years) and whites (13.4 years) had fewer AYLL than Hispanics/Latinos (14.7). CONCLUSIONS Despite improvements in life expectancy among people diagnosed with an HIV infection during 2008-2011, disparities by sex and by race/ethnicity persist. Targeted efforts should continue to further reduce disparities and improve life expectancy after HIV diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azfar-e-Alam Siddiqi
- HIV Incidence and Case Surveillance Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - H. Irene Hall
- HIV Incidence and Case Surveillance Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - Xiaohong Hu
- HIV Incidence and Case Surveillance Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
| | - Ruiguang Song
- Quantitative Sciences and Data Management Branch, Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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