Retrospective analysis of tacrolimus combined with Tripterygium wilfordii polyglycoside for treating idiopathic membranous nephropathy

The outcomes of primary membranous nephropathy treated with cyclophosphamide are superior to calcineurin inhibitors in patients with renal vascular lesions: A multi-center retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The difference of the outcomes of primary membranous nephropathy (PMN) with renal vascular lesions treated with cyclophosphamide (CTX) compared to calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) remains undetermined.

METHODS

872 patients with PMN finished CNIs or CTX-based therapy between 2003 and 2018 from three centers in China were followed up at most to 120 months. A propensity-score matched (PSM) method was used to analyze the difference of outcomes between those receiving CTX- and CNIs-based therapy. Primary endpoints were defined as a composite of a 50 % decline in eGFR, progression to end-stage renal disease, or all-cause mortality. Dual immunohistochemical staining of CD31 and α-smooth muscle action were applied to detect pathological vascular lesions.

RESULTS

A total of 761 patients were included in the study. After PSM, no significant difference of proteinuria complete remission rate was found between 126 paired patients (HR, 1.32; 95 % CI, 0.95 to 1.83; p = 0.10). However, CTX-based therapy was associated with significantly better renal survival compared to CNI-based therapy. (median, 156 months vs. 108 months; hazard ratio [HR], 0.31; 95 % confidence interval [CI]0.16 to 0.61; p = 0.001). Subgroup analyses showed that CTX-based therapy was superior to CNIs-based therapy among patients with hyalinosis damage (HR, 0.16; 95 % CI 0.05 to 0.50; p = 0.002;), arteriosclerosis (HR, 0.31; 95 % CI 0.15 to 0.62; p = 0.001), or hypertension (HR, 0.21; 95 % CI 0.08 to 0.53; p = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

CTX-based therapy exhibited a significantly improved composite endpoint of PMN patients with vascular lesions compared to CNIs-based regime.

Effectiveness and safety of tripterygium wilfordii poly-glycosides on glomerulonephritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Treatment of glomerulonephritis presents several challenges, including limited therapeutic options, high costs, and potential adverse reactions. As a recognized Chinese patent medicine, Tripterygium wilfordii poly-glycosides (TWP) have shown promising benefits in managing autoimmune diseases. To evaluate clinical effectiveness and safety of TWP in treating glomerulonephritis, we systematically searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Embase databases for controlled studies published up to 12 July 2023. We employed weighted mean difference and relative risk to analyze continuous and dichotomous outcomes. This meta-analysis included 16 studies that included primary membranous nephropathy (PMN), type 2 diabetic kidney disease (DKD), and Henoch-Schönlein purpura nephritis (HSPN). Analysis revealed that additional TWP administration improved patients' outcomes and total remission rates, reduced 24-h urine protein (24hUP) and decreased relapse events. The pooled results demonstrated the non-inferiority of TWP to glucocorticoids in achieving total remission, reducing 24hUP, and converting the phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) status to negative. For DKD patients, TWP effectively reduced 24hUP levels, although it did not significantly improve the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). Compared to valsartan, TWP showed comparable improvements in 24hUP and eGFR levels. In severe cases of HSPN in children, significant clinical remission and a reduction in 24hUP levels were observed with the addition of TWP treatment. TWP did not significantly increase the incidence of adverse reactions. Therefore, TWP could offer therapeutic benefits to patients with PMN, DKD, and severe HSPN, with a minimal increase in the risk of side effects.

Effects of tacrolimus on proteinuria in Chinese and Indian patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy: the results of machine learning study

PURPOSE

The present study aims to explore the effects of tacrolimus on proteinuria in patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) and recommend an appropriate dosage schedule via machine learning method.

METHODS

The Emax model was constructed to analyze the effects of tacrolimus on proteinuria in patients with IMN. Data were mined from published literature and machine learning was built up with Emax model, among which the efficacy indicator was proteinuria change rates from baseline. 463 IMN patients were included for modeling, and tacrolimus therapeutic window concentrations were 4-10 ng/ml.

RESULTS

In machine learning model, the Emax from tacrolimus effecting proteinuria in IMN patients was -72.7%, the ET50 was 0.43 months, and the time to achieving 25% Emax, 50% Emax, 75% Emax, and 80% (plateau) Emax of tacrolimus on proteinuria in patients with IMN were 0.15, 0.43, 1.29, and 1.72 months, respectively.

CONCLUSION

For achieving better therapeutic effects from tacrolimus on proteinuria in patients with IMN, tacrolimus concentration range need to be maintained at 4-10 ng/ml for at least 1.72 months.

Colquhounia root tablet in the treatment of idiopathic membranous nephropathy with subnephrotic proteinuria

PURPOSE

Idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) is the most frequent global cause of nephrotic syndrome in non-diabetic people. In clinical practice, An effective and mild treatment for IMN patients with subnephrotic proteinuria has been adopted. Colquhounia root tablet (CRT) is a traditional Chinese medicine that is widely used in China to treat glomerulopathies. In this study, the effectiveness and safety of CRT in the treatment of IMN with subnephrotic proteinuria have been determined by reviewing the clinical records of 44 patients with IMN.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis of IMN patients with subnephrotic proteinuria treated with CRT in combination with ACEI/ARB or ACEI/ARB alone. The remission rate (complete or partial remission) was the main outcome observed, and proteinuria, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), serum albumin levels, and adverse effects were the secondary outcomes.

RESULTS

This clinical trial included 44 patients, and the overall remission rates at months 6, 9, and 12 after treatment were 68.2% versus 27.3% (p = 0.016), 72.7% versus 36.4% (p = 0.015), and 77.3% versus 36.4% (p = 0.006) in the treatment and control groups, respectively. The application of CRT treatment was an independent predictor of proteinuria remission (p = 0.024). In addition, in patients who were positive for phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) antibodies, the overall remission rate was higher in the treatment group than in the control group after 9 months of treatment (75% versus 23.08%, p = 0.017).

CONCLUSION

This retrospective study illustrates that, based on supportive therapy, CRT could be effective in the treatment of IMN with subnephrotic proteinuria with a good safety profile at the same time.

How to Choose the Right Treatment for Membranous Nephropathy

Membranous nephropathy is an autoimmune disease affecting the glomeruli and is one of the most common causes of nephrotic syndrome. In the absence of any therapy, 35% of patients develop end-stage renal disease. The discovery of autoantibodies such as phospholipase A2 receptor 1, antithrombospondin and neural epidermal growth factor-like 1 protein has greatly helped us to understand the pathogenesis and enable the diagnosis of this disease and to guide its treatment. Depending on the complications of nephrotic syndrome, patients with this disease receive supportive treatment with diuretics, ACE inhibitors or angiotensin-receptor blockers, lipid-lowering agents and anticoagulants. After assessing the risk of progression of end-stage renal disease, patients receive immunosuppressive therapy with various drugs such as cyclophosphamide, steroids, calcineurin inhibitors or rituximab. Since immunosuppressive drugs can cause life-threatening side effects and up to 30% of patients do not respond to therapy, new therapeutic approaches with drugs such as adrenocorticotropic hormone, belimumab, anti-plasma cell antibodies or complement-guided drugs are currently being tested. However, special attention needs to be paid to the choice of therapy in secondary forms or in specific clinical contexts such as membranous disease in children, pregnant women and patients undergoing kidney transplantation.

Review of molecular biological research on the treatment of membranous nephropathy with Tripterygium glycosides based on TCM theory

To explore the mechanism of Tripterygium wilfordii polyglycoside (TWP) in the treatment of membranous nephropathy (MN) by network pharmacology. TCMSP and DrugBank databases were used to screen the main targets of the main active components of Tripterygium glycosides, and OMIM and Gene Cards databases were used to search the gene targets of MN. UniProt database was used to normalize all the targets to get the intersection targets of TGs and MNs. Synergistic genes were uploaded to the STRING platform to construct a protein-protein interaction network and screen related core targets. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Genome Encyclopedia analyses of core targets were performed using the DAVID database. AutoDockTools software was used to verify the molecular docking between the active components of TGs and the synergistic genes. We identified 126 potential targets for the active component of Tripterygium glycosides, 584 MN-associated disease targets, and 28 co-acting genes. It mainly involves AGE-RAGE signaling pathway, lipid and atherosclerosis, IL-17 signaling pathway, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, NF-kappa B signaling pathway and other pathways and biological pathways in diabetic complications. The active component of that Tripterygium glycosides and the active site of the synergistic core target can the bond energy is less than -5kJ/mol. Tripterygium glycosides can regulate the release of inflammatory factors to treat MN through multiple active components, multiple disease targets, multiple biological pathways and multiple pathways, which provides a basis for broadening the clinical use of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of MN.

Efficacy and safety of Tripterygium wilfordii multiglucoside for idiopathic membranous nephropathy: a systematic review with bayesian meta-analysis

Background: Currently, the optimal therapy plan for idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) remains controversial as there has been no comprehensive and systematic comparison of therapy plans for IMN. Therefore, in this study, a Bayesian meta-analysis was used to systematically evaluate the clinical efficacy and safety of various intervention plans involving traditional Chinese medicine TWM in the treatment of IMN. Methods: An electronic search in 7 databases was conducted from their inception to August 2022 for all published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of various intervention plans for IMN. Network meta-analysis (NMA) was performed by using software R, and the surface under the cumulative ranking area (SUCRA) probability curve was plotted for each outcome indicator to rank the efficacy and safety of different intervention plans. Results: A total of 30 RCTs were included, involving 13 interventions. The results showed that (1) in terms of total remission (TR), ① GC + CNI + TWM was the best effective among all plans, and the addition and subtraction plan of CNI + TWM was the best effective for IMN; ② All plans involving TWM were more effective than GG; ③ Among monotherapy plans for IMN, TWM was more effective distinctly than GC, while TWM and CNI were similarly effective; ④ Among multidrug therapy plans for IMN, the addition of TWM to previously established therapy plans made the original plans more effective; ⑤The efficacy of combining TWM with other plans was superior to that of TWM alone. (2) In terms of lowering 24 h-UTP, GC + TWM was the best effective and more effective than TWM. (3) In terms of safety, there was no statistically significant difference between all groups. However, CNI + TWM was the safest. No serious adverse events (AEs) occurred in all the included studies. Conclusion: The addition of TWM may be beneficial to patients with IMN. It may enhance the efficacy of previously established treatment protocols without leading to additional safety risks. In particular, GC + CNI + TWM, GC + TWM, and CNI + TWM with better efficacy and higher safety can be preferred in clinical decision-making as the therapy plans for IMN.

Inhibitory effects of traditional Chinese medicine colquhounia root tablet on the pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tacrolimus (TAC) was widely used in various renal diseases while high recurrence rate and high expense restricted its applications. Traditional herbal medicine has become increasingly popular as an adjuvant therapy to minimize the adverse effects of TAC. Colquhounia root tablet (CRT), a prescribed drug prepared from the water extract of the peeled root of Tripterygium hypoglaucum (H. Lév.) Hutch., showed excellent anti-inflammatory, analgesic and immunosuppressive pharmacological properties. TAC used in combination with CRT was substantially more efficacious and safer than the monotherapy for the treatment of nephrotic syndrome. However, studies on their herb-drug interaction were scanty.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study was proposed to examine the effect of CRT on the pharmacokinetics of TAC in rats and identify the key natural constituents in CRT that affected the metabolism of TAC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TAC was orally and intravenously administered to rats alone or in combination with CRT and the pharmacokinetic parameters of TAC were compared. After pretreatment with CRT for 15 d, the expressions of the drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs), drug transporters (DTs) and nuclear receptors (NRs) were determined by polymerase chain reaction and western blotting and compared with the control group. The hepatic microsomal incubation system was employed to confirm the inhibitory effects of CRT and its major components on rat cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A2. The roles of the primary components in the regulation of human CYP3A4 and mouse P-gp activities were evaluated by using docking analysis.

RESULTS

The blood concentrations of TAC were significantly increased in a dose- and pretreatment time-dependent manner after combined administration of CRT. The maximal effect was found at 300 mg/kg (43.70 ± 8.77 ng/mL and 141.45 ± 21.58 h·ng/mL) in a single dose run and the pharmacokinetic parameters gradually returned to the normal levels at 24 h interval of long-term CRT pretreatment. In contrast, CRT had no effect on the pharmacokinetics of intravenous TAC. Further study indicated that the mRNA and protein expressions of DMEs and DTs, such as CYP3A1, CYP3A2, P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 in rat intestine and liver were down-regulated, whereas the expressions of NRs like constitutive androstane receptor and pregnane X receptor were up-regulated after multiple oral doses of CRT. Molecular docking showed the binding potency of five CRT major constituents with both human CYP3A4 and mouse P-gp. Celastrol, wilforgine and wilforine were the strongest inhibitors towards midazolam metabolism in rat liver microsomes, with the 50% inhibition concentrations being at 8.33 μM, 22.18 μM and 22.22 μM, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results revealed that co-dosing of CRT could lead to a significant increase in blood concentration of TAC and this effect could be ascribed to the resultant co-regulation of DMEs, DTs and NRs. Our study provided an experimental basis for the combination use of CRT and TAC in clinical practice.

Therapies for Membranous Nephropathy: A Tale From the Old and New Millennia

Primary Membranous Nephropathy (PMN) is the most frequent cause of nephrotic syndrome in adults. If untreated, PMN can lead to end-stage renal disease; moreover, affected patients are at increased risk of complications typical of nephrotic syndrome such as fluid overload, deep vein thrombosis and infection. The association of PMN with HLA-DQA1 and the identification in around 70% of cases of circulating autoantibodies, mainly directed towards the phospholipase A2 receptor, supports the autoimmune nature of the disease. In patients not achieving spontaneous remission or in the ones with deteriorating kidney function and severe nephrotic syndrome, immunosuppression is required to increase the chances of achieving remission. The aim of this review is to discuss the evidence base for the different immunosuppressive regimens used for PMN in studies published so far; the manuscript also includes a section where the authors propose, based upon current evidence, their recommendations regarding immunosuppression in the disease, while highlighting the still significant knowledge gaps and uncertainties.

Mechanism of action of Tripterygium wilfordii for treatment of idiopathic membranous nephropathy based on network pharmacology

Background

Although thunder god vine (Tripterygium wilfordii) has been widely used for treatment of idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN), the pharmacological mechanisms underlying its effects are still unclear. This study investigated potential therapeutic targets and the pharmacological mechanism of T. wilfordii for the treatment of IMN based on network pharmacology.

Methods

Active components of T. wilfordii were obtained from the Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology Database and Analysis Platform. IMN-associated target genes were collected from the GeneCards, DisGeNET, and OMIM databases. VENNY 2.1 was used to identify the overlapping genes between active compounds of T. wilfordii and IMN target genes. The STRING database and Cytoscape 3.7.2 software were used to analyze interactions among overlapping genes. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses of the targets were performed using Rx64 4.0.2 software, colorspace, stringi, DOSE, clusterProfiler, and enrichplot packages.

Results

A total of 153 compound-related genes and 1485 IMN-related genes were obtained, and 45 core genes that overlapped between both categories were identified. The protein–protein interaction network and MCODE results indicated that the targets TP53, MAPK8, MAPK14, STAT3, IFNG, ICAM1, IL4, TGFB1, PPARG, and MMP1 play important roles in the treatment of T. wilfordii on IMN. Enrichment analysis showed that the main pathways of targets were the AGE signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, and Toll-like receptor signaling pathway.

Conclusion

This study revealed potential multi-component and multi-target mechanisms of T. wilfordii for the treatment of IMN based on network pharmacological, and provided a scientific basis for further experimental studies.

Efficacy and safety of tripterygium wilfordii multiglycosides in idiopathic membranous nephropathy: Protocol for an open-label randomized controlled clinical trial

OBJECTIVE

Tripterygium wilfordii multiglycosides has been demonstrated to be effective in reducing proteinuria and alleviate edema in patients with chronic kidney disease. We aim to evaluate its efficacy and safety in idiopathic membranous nephropathy.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This is an randomized, open-labeled, controlled clinical trial. Twenty eligible patients with idiopathic membranous nephropathy will be randomly assigned into the intervention group and the control group at a rate of 1:1. Patients in the intervention group will receive tripterygium wilfordii multiglycosides tablets (1-1.5 mg/kg body weight/d, orally) in addition to the original treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker, while the control group will continue with the original treatment of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor/angiotensin receptor blocker. The treatment course is 6 months, and clinical variables of patients will be measured at baseline and each monthly follow-up. The primary efficacy outcome measure is absolute decrease in urinary protein quantity after 6 months of treatment compared with baseline at randomization. The secondary efficacy outcome measures include absolute decrease in urine albumin-creatinine ratio in spot urine after 6 months of treatment compared with baseline at randomization, the percentage of patients who reached effective clinical response, and the percentage of patients who developed composite renal endpoint. Safety outcome measures include incidence of adverse events, incidence of serious adverse events, and death.

Efficacy and safety of tacrolimus monotherapy versus tacrolimus-corticosteroid combination therapy for idiopathic membranous nephropathy: A meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this meta-analysis was to compare the efficacy and safety of tacrolimus (TAC) monotherapy versus TAC-corticosteroid combination therapy in idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) patients.

METHODS

Databases including PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang database were searched from inception to January 10, 2021. Eligible studies comparing TAC monotherapy and TAC-corticosteroid combination therapy in IMN patients were included. Data were analysed using Review Manager Version 5.3.

RESULTS

Seven studies were included in the meta-analysis. One randomized controlled trial and six cohort studies involving 372 patients were identified. Compared with TAC monotherapy, TAC-corticosteroid had a higher total remission at the sixth month (odd ratio (OR) 0.49, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.31-0.78, P < .01). The two therapy regimens had similar complete remission rates (OR 0.79, 95% CI 0.43-1.48, P = .47) at the sixth month and similar relapse rates (OR 1.44, 95% CI 0.70-2.92, P = .32). TAC-corticosteroid combination therapy had a higher incidence of infection (OR 0.38, 95% CI 0.18-0.81, P = .01). The two therapy regimens had similar incidences of gastrointestinal symptoms (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.34-2.70, P = .93), abnormal aminotransferase (OR 0.90, 95% CI 0.34-2.38, P = .84), and glucose intolerance (OR 0.58, 95% CI 0.32-1.07, P = .08).

CONCLUSION

TAC-corticosteroid combination therapy had a higher total remission rate at the sixth month but had a higher incidence of infection than TAC monotherapy in the treatment of IMN. The two therapeutic regimens had similar relapse rates.

Retrospective analysis of Tripterygium wilfordii polyglycoside combined with angiotensin receptor blockers for the treatment of primary membranous nephropathy with sub-nephrotic proteinuria

INTRODUCTION

Primary membranous nephropathy (PMN) is one common cause of end-stage kidney disease. There is no optimal treatment for PMN patients with sub-nephrotic proteinuria currently. Tripterygium wilfordii polyglycoside (TWG) is a widely used traditional medicine in China and has been used to treat nephropathy for decades.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of TWG combined with angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) on the treatment of PMN with sub-nephrotic proteinuria.

METHODS

Biopsy-proven sub-nephrotic PMN patients with normal kidney function and treated with TWG combined with ARB or ARB alone were retrospectively analyzed. The primary outcome was remission rate (complete or partial remission), and the secondary outcomes included proteinuria, serum albumin levels, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), relapse rate, and adverse events.

RESULTS

The clinical trial included 55 patients. The overall remission rates for the TWG + ARB and ARB groups after 9 months of treatment were 74.3% and 35%, respectively (p = 0.004). Moreover, the complete remission (CR) rate for the TWG + ARB and ARB groups in the 9th month were 45.7% and 15%, respectively (p = 0.044). Treatment with TWG + ARB was the independent predictor of complete remission of proteinuria (p = 0.048). Besides, the remission rate was higher in the TWG + ARB group than in the ARB group among patients who were positive for anti-phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R) antibodies (65.4% vs. 21.4%, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate that TWG may be a promising treatment for PMN patients with sub-nephrotic proteinuria, whether anti-PLA2R antibody is positive or negative.

Nephrotoxicity of Herbal Medicine and Its Prevention

Herbal medicine (HM) has been widely used to treat diseases for thousands of years and has greatly contributed to the health of human beings. Many new drugs have been developed from HM, such as artemisinin. However, artemisinin has adverse effects, such as renal toxicity. In 1993, a study conducted in Belgium reported for the first time that the root extracts of Aristolochia obliqua S. M. Hwang led to progressive interstitial renal fibrosis. The nephrotoxicity of HM has attracted worldwide attention. More than 100 kinds of HM induce renal toxicity, including some herbs, animal HMs, and minerals. This paper aimed to summarize the HM compounds that cause nephrotoxicity, the mechanisms underlying the toxicity of these compounds, biomarkers of renal injury, and prevention strategies. These findings provide a basis for follow-up studies on the prevention and treatment of HM nephrotoxicity.

Triptolide inhibits pancreatic cancer cell proliferation and migration via down-regulating PLAU based on network pharmacology of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F

Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F (TwHF) exhibits anti-tumor efficacy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), however the pharmacological mechanisms are unclear due to complicated formulae and target genes. Using Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology and GeneCards databases, we performed a network pharmacology (NP) of TwHF and screened out 22 ingredients and 25 target genes associated with PDAC. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses of the 25 target genes were performed. Using STRING database, protein-protein interaction network of the 25 target genes was constructed, and indicated that triptolide (TL)-plasminogen activator urokinase (PLAU) as a potential target for PDAC treatment. Hence, in vitro experiments were performed and validated that TL inhibited PDAC cell proliferation and migration by suppressing PLAU expression. The results of Western blot suggested that PLAU activated endothelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) progression. In two Gene Expression Omnibus datasets (GSE16515 and GSE28735), PLAU was up-regulated in tumor tissues, and PLAU overexpression was associated with poor overall survival of PDAC cohort of The Cancer Genome Atlas (P < 0.01). Immunohistochemistry illustrated that overexpression of PLAU protein was related to lymph node metastasis in 20 PDAC patients (P < 0.01). Based on NP of TwHF, we identified and validated that TL-PLAU could serve as a potential target for PDAC treatment.

Adverse Events Associated With Treatment of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F: A Quantitative Evidence Synthesis

Background:Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F can cause adverse effects (AEs) in clinical application and may be harmful to human health. This study aim to summarize the AEs caused by T. wilfordii tgpolyglycoside (TWP), the most common preparation of T. wilfordii Hook F for clinical use.

Methods: The Cochrane Library, EMBASE, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched to identify potential articles on this topic. All single-arm trials, controlled clinical trials, and randomized controlled trials were selected and summarized. Meta-regression was used to determine the sources of heterogeneity, and subgroups were used to identify factors leading to AEs.

Results: Forty-six studies, comprising 25 randomized controlled trials, 13 controlled clinical trials, and 8 single-arm trials, were included in this meta-analysis, representing 2437 enrolled TWP-treated participants. Combined intervention, drug dosage, medication treatment, pharmaceutical manufacturers, and specific organ toxicity were identified as potential factors leading to TWP-induced AEs in this meta-analysis. In patients treated with TWP, the global incidence of AEs was 30.75% (95% confidence interval [21.18–40.33], I² = 97%), and that of severe grade AEs was 4.68% (95% confidence interval [0.00–12.72], I² = 53%). Organ-specific analyses indicated that TWP treatment elicited intestinal toxicity, reproductive toxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, hematotoxicity, cutaneous toxicity, and other damages. The AEs analyzed in the subgroups of combined intervention, drug dosage, medication treatment, and pharmaceutical manufacturers were considered as primary outcomes, and organic-specific AEs were considered as secondary outcomes.

Conclusions: The occurrence of TWP-induced AEs was systemic, organ-specific, and related to medication course, combined intervention, and drug dosage.