1
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Karras F, Kunz M. Patient-derived melanoma models. Pathol Res Pract 2024; 259:155231. [PMID: 38508996 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2024.155231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Melanoma is a very aggressive, rapidly metastasizing tumor that has been studied intensively in the past regarding the underlying genetic and molecular mechanisms. More recently developed treatment modalities have improved response rates and overall survival of patients. However, the majority of patients suffer from secondary treatment resistance, which requires in depth analyses of the underlying mechanisms. Here, melanoma models based on patients-derived material may play an important role. Consequently, a plethora of different experimental techniques have been developed in the past years. Among these are 3D and 4D culture techniques, organotypic skin reconstructs, melanoma-on-chip models and patient-derived xenografts, Every technique has its own strengths but also weaknesses regarding throughput, reproducibility, and reflection of the human situation. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of currently used techniques and discuss their use in different experimental settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Karras
- Institute of Pathology, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Leipziger Str. 44, Magdeburg 39120, Germany.
| | - Manfred Kunz
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Leipzig, Philipp-Rosenthal-Str. 23, Leipzig 04103, Germany
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2
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Viegas J, Sarmento B. Bridging the gap between testing and clinics exploring alternative pre-clinical models in melanoma research. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2024; 208:115295. [PMID: 38527625 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2024.115295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Melanoma, the deadliest form of skin cancer, poses a significant clinical challenge for the development of effective treatments. Conventional in vivo animal studies have shown limited translational relevance to humans, raising strength to pre-clinical models for melanoma research. This review provides an in-depth analysis of alternative pre-clinical models including in vitro and ex vivo platforms such as reconstructed skin, spheroids, organoids, organotypic models, skin-on-a-chip, and bioprinting. Through a comprehensive analysis, the specific attributes, advantages, and limitations of each model are elucidated. It discusses the points related to the uniqueness advantages, from capturing complex interactions between melanoma cells and their microenvironment to enabling high-throughput drug screening and personalized medicine approaches. This review is structured covering firstly the roadmap to identify the co-occurrence of discovering new melanoma treatments and the development of its models, secondly it covers a comparative between the most used models followed by a section discussing each of them: the in vitro and ex vivo models. It intends to serve as an asset for researchers of melanoma field and clinicians involved in melanoma therapy, offering insights into the diverse preclinical models available for optimizing their integration into the translational pipeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Viegas
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; IUCS-CESPU - Instituto Universitário de Ciências da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal.
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3
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Rodrigues DB, Moreira HR, Jarnalo M, Horta R, Marques AP, Reis RL, Pirraco RP. Generation of 3D melanoma models using an assembloid-based approach. Acta Biomater 2024; 178:93-110. [PMID: 38382833 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2024.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
While 3D tumor models have greatly evolved over the past years, there is still a strong requirement for more biosimilar models which are capable of recapitulating cellular crosstalk within the tumor microenvironment while equally displaying representative levels of tumor aggressiveness and invasion. Herein, we disclose an assembloid melanoma model based on the fusion of individual stromal multicellular spheroids (MCSs). In contrast to more traditional tumor models, we show that it is possible to develop self-organizing, heterotypic melanoma models where tumor cells present stem-cell like features like up-regulated pluripotency master regulators SOX2, POU5F1 and NANOG. Additionally, these assembloids display high levels of invasiveness while embedded in 3D matrices as evidenced by stromal cell promotion of melanoma cell invasion via metalloproteinase production. Furthermore, sensitivity to anticancer drug doxorubicin was demonstrated for the melanoma assembloid model. These findings suggest that melanoma assembloids may play a significant role in the field of 3D cancer models as they more closely mimic the tumor microenvironment when compared to more traditional MCSs, opening the doors to a better understanding of the role of tumor microenvironment in supporting tumor progression. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The development of complex 3D tumor models that better recapitulate the tumor microenvironment is crucial for both an improved comprehension of intercellular crosstalk and for more efficient drug screening. We have herein developed a self-organizing heterotypic assembloid-based melanoma model capable of closely mimicking the tumor microenvironment. Key features recapitulated were the preservation of cancer cell stemness, sensitivity to anti-cancer agents and tumor cell invasion promoted by stromal cells. The approach of pre-establishing distinct stromal domains for subsequent combination into more complex tumor constructs provides a route for developing superior tumor models with a higher degree of similarity to native cancer tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel B Rodrigues
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal
| | - Helena R Moreira
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal
| | - Mariana Jarnalo
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, and Burn Unity, Centro Hospitalar de São João, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine - University of Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Horta
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, and Burn Unity, Centro Hospitalar de São João, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine - University of Porto, Portugal
| | - Alexandra P Marques
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal
| | - Rui L Reis
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal
| | - Rogério P Pirraco
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, 4805-017 Barco, Guimarães, Portugal; ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães 4805-017, Portugal.
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4
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Nuernberg E, Bruch R, Hafner M, Rudolf R, Vitacolonna M. Quantitative Analysis of Whole-Mount Fluorescence-Stained Tumor Spheroids in Phenotypic Drug Screens. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2764:311-334. [PMID: 38393603 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3674-9_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional cell cultures, such as spheroids or organoids, serve as important models for drug screening purposes. Optical tissue clearing (OTC) enhances the visualization of fluorescence stainings and enables in toto microscopy of 3D cell culture models. Furthermore, subsequent automated image analysis tools convert qualitative confocal image sets into quantitative data. In this chapter, we describe a detailed protocol for preparation of HT29 cancer spheroids, 3D in toto immunostaining, glycerol-based OTC, whole-mount imaging, and semi-automated downstream image processing and segmentation for nuclear image analysis using open-source software.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Nuernberg
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
- Center for Mass Spectrometry and Optical Spectroscopy (CeMOS), Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Roman Bruch
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
- Institute for Automation and Applied Informatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Mathias Hafner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Ruediger Rudolf
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
- Center for Mass Spectrometry and Optical Spectroscopy (CeMOS), Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Mario Vitacolonna
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany.
- Center for Mass Spectrometry and Optical Spectroscopy (CeMOS), Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany.
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5
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Nomdedeu-Sancho G, Gorkun A, Mahajan N, Willson K, Schaaf CR, Votanopoulos KI, Atala A, Soker S. In Vitro Three-Dimensional (3D) Models for Melanoma Immunotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:5779. [PMID: 38136325 PMCID: PMC10741426 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15245779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is responsible for the majority of skin cancer-related fatalities. Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatments have revolutionized the management of the disease by significantly increasing patient survival rates. However, a considerable number of tumors treated with these drugs fail to respond or may develop resistance over time. Tumor growth and its response to therapies are critically influenced by the tumor microenvironment (TME); it directly supports cancer cell growth and influences the behavior of surrounding immune cells, which can become tumor-permissive, thereby rendering immunotherapies ineffective. Ex vivo modeling of melanomas and their response to treatment could significantly advance our understanding and predictions of therapy outcomes. Efforts have been directed toward developing reliable models that accurately mimic melanoma in its appropriate tissue environment, including tumor organoids, bioprinted tissue constructs, and microfluidic devices. However, incorporating and modeling the melanoma TME and immune component remains a significant challenge. Here, we review recent literature regarding the generation of in vitro 3D models of normal skin and melanoma and the approaches used to incorporate the immune compartment in such models. We discuss how these constructs could be combined and used to test immunotherapies and elucidate treatment resistance mechanisms. The development of 3D in vitro melanoma models that faithfully replicate the complexity of the TME and its interaction with the immune system will provide us with the technical tools to better understand ICI resistance and increase its efficacy, thereby improving personalized melanoma therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Nomdedeu-Sancho
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
| | - Anastasiya Gorkun
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
| | - Naresh Mahajan
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
| | - Kelsey Willson
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
| | - Cecilia R. Schaaf
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
- Wake Forest Organoid Research Center (WFORCE), Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
- Pathology Section, Comparative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Konstantinos I. Votanopoulos
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
- Wake Forest Organoid Research Center (WFORCE), Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA
- Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology, Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Anthony Atala
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
- Wake Forest Organoid Research Center (WFORCE), Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
| | - Shay Soker
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA; (G.N.-S.); (A.G.); (N.M.); (K.W.); (C.R.S.); (K.I.V.); (A.A.)
- Wake Forest Organoid Research Center (WFORCE), Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC 27101, USA
- Medical Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
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6
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Zhao H, Chen Z, Kang X, Yang B, Luo P, Li H, He Q. The frontline of alternatives to animal testing: novel in vitro skin model application in drug development and evaluation. Toxicol Sci 2023; 196:152-169. [PMID: 37702017 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfad093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The FDA Modernization Act 2.0 has brought nonclinical drug evaluation into a new era. In vitro models are widely used and play an important role in modern drug development and evaluation, including early candidate drug screening and preclinical drug efficacy and toxicity assessment. Driven by regulatory steering and facilitated by well-defined physiology, novel in vitro skin models are emerging rapidly, becoming the most advanced area in alternative testing research. The revolutionary technologies bring us many in vitro skin models, either laboratory-developed or commercially available, which were all built to emulate the structure of the natural skin to recapitulate the skin's physiological function and particular skin pathology. During the model development, how to achieve balance among complexity, accessibility, capability, and cost-effectiveness remains the core challenge for researchers. This review attempts to introduce the existing in vitro skin models, align them on different dimensions, such as structural complexity, functional maturity, and screening throughput, and provide an update on their current application in various scenarios within the scope of chemical testing and drug development, including testing in genotoxicity, phototoxicity, skin sensitization, corrosion/irritation. Overall, the review will summarize a general strategy for in vitro skin model to enhance future model invention, application, and translation in drug development and evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Zhao
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zhaozeng Chen
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xingchen Kang
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Institute of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Peihua Luo
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Hui Li
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Qiaojun He
- Center for Drug Safety Evaluation and Research of Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310018, China
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7
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Niwetbowornchai N, Chaisirirat T, Sriswasdi S, Saithong S, Filbertine G, Wright HL, Edwards SW, Virakul S, Chiewchengchol D. Regulation of dermal fibroblasts by human neutrophil peptides. Sci Rep 2023; 13:17499. [PMID: 37840103 PMCID: PMC10577140 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44889-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Human neutrophil peptides (HNPs) can induce cell proliferation and activation so their growth promoting activities may have potential clinical benefit. This study investigated the effects of HNPs on human dermal fibroblasts. Differential gene expression in HNP-treated cells and genes involved in regulating intracellular pathways were explored. Dermal fibroblasts were isolated from healthy neonatal foreskin and treated with HNPs in 2D and 3D cell culture systems. The expression of cell proliferation (Ki-67) gene and cell activation (COL1A1) gene plus their proteins was measured. Differential gene expression was determined using RNA-seq, and upregulated and downregulated genes were mapped onto intracellular pathways by KEGG analysis and Gene Ontology databases. HNPs significantly increased cell proliferation without cytotoxicity whilst HNP1 enhanced expression of COL1A1 and type I collagen production in 2D cells and 3D spheroids. RNA-sequencing analysis showed gene clustering with clear separation between HNP1-treated and control groups. A heatmap of top 50 differentially expressed genes was consistent among HNP1-treated samples. Most upregulated genes were associated with cell proliferation and activation as mapped into intracellular pathways whilst most downregulated genes belonged to steroid/arachidonic acid metabolism and inflammatory signaling pathways. HNP1 increased cell proliferation and activation but reduced lipid metabolism and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nattarika Niwetbowornchai
- Center of Excellence in Translational Research in Inflammation and Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Immunology and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Immunology Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Thanawat Chaisirirat
- Center of Excellence in Computational Molecular Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sira Sriswasdi
- Center of Excellence in Computational Molecular Biology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Research Affairs, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Supichcha Saithong
- Center of Excellence in Translational Research in Inflammation and Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Immunology and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Immunology Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Grace Filbertine
- Center of Excellence in Translational Research in Inflammation and Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Immunology and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Immunology Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Helen L Wright
- Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Steven W Edwards
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Sita Virakul
- Center of Excellence in Immunology and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Immunology Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Direkrit Chiewchengchol
- Center of Excellence in Translational Research in Inflammation and Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
- Center of Excellence in Immunology and Immune-Mediated Diseases, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Immunology Unit, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand.
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8
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Karras F, Bonsack M, Seifert S, Friedrich L, Kunz M. MEK inhibition induces expression of differentiation marker Keratin 10 in human keratinocytes. Pathol Res Pract 2023; 250:154788. [PMID: 37729782 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2023.154788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
BRAF mutant metastatic melanoma was regularly treated in the past with a BRAF inhibitor (BRAFi) alone or in combination with inhibitors of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEKi), which is still a common treatment. This combination therapy strongly reduced the occurrence of keratoacanthomas and squamous cell carcinoma, which was frequently seen when BRAFi was used as monotherapy. Here we addressed the question whether MEK inhibition counteracts squamous cell carcinoma development in part by promoting keratinocyte differentiation. Exposure of human immortalized keratinocytes to different concentrations of MEKi revealed a significant increase in the expression of differentiation-associated keratins K10 and K1 as determined by qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining. Taken together, the present study suggests that in a combined treatment of melanoma with BRAFi/MEKi, MEKi reduces the incidence of squamous cell carcinomas by promoting keratinocyte differentiation under combined BRAFi/MEKi treatment in melanoma. This might open further treatment perspectives for skin cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Karras
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Institute of Pathology, University Hospital Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany.
| | - M Bonsack
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - S Seifert
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - L Friedrich
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - M Kunz
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Center Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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9
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Michielon E, de Gruijl TD, Gibbs S. From simplicity to complexity in current melanoma models. Exp Dermatol 2022; 31:1818-1836. [PMID: 36103206 PMCID: PMC10092692 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Despite the recent impressive clinical success of immunotherapy against melanoma, development of primary and adaptive resistance against immune checkpoint inhibitors remains a major issue in a large number of treated patients. This highlights the need for melanoma models that replicate the tumor's intricate dynamics in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and associated immune suppression to study possible resistance mechanisms in order to improve current and test novel therapeutics. While two-dimensional melanoma cell cultures have been widely used to perform functional genomics screens in a high-throughput fashion, they are not suitable to answer more complex scientific questions. Melanoma models have also been established in a variety of experimental (humanized) animals. However, due to differences in physiology, such models do not fully represent human melanoma development. Therefore, fully human three-dimensional in vitro models mimicking melanoma cell interactions with the TME are being developed to address this need for more physiologically relevant models. Such models include melanoma organoids, spheroids, and reconstructed human melanoma-in-skin cultures. Still, while major advances have been made to complement and replace animals, these in vitro systems have yet to fully recapitulate human tumor complexity. Lastly, technical advancements have been made in the organ-on-chip field to replicate functions and microstructures of in vivo human tissues and organs. This review summarizes advancements made in understanding and treating melanoma and specifically aims to discuss the progress made towards developing melanoma models, their applications, limitations, and the advances still needed to further facilitate the development of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Michielon
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Cancer Center Amsterdam, Cancer Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tanja D de Gruijl
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Cancer Center Amsterdam, Cancer Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Oncology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susan Gibbs
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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10
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Tan CT, Leo ZY, Lim CY. Generation and integration of hair follicle-primed spheroids in bioengineered skin constructs. Biomed Mater 2022; 17. [PMID: 36268872 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/ac99c6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Skin is a complex organ made up of different cell layers, appendages, connective tissues, and immune repertoires. These different components interact extensively to maintain the overall functions of the integumentary system. In particular, appendages such as hair follicles critically contribute to the skin's function in thermoregulation, sensory perception, and homeostatic regeneration. Despite a strong need for better skin regenerative therapeutics, efforts to bio-engineer highly functional appendage-containing human reconstituted skinin vitrohave not yielded much success. Here, we report methods in generating and incorporating hair follicle-primed heterotypic spheroids into epidermal-dermal skin constructs that induced invaginating outgrowths with follicle-like organization and lineage gene expression. By co-culturing epithelial keratinocytes (KCs) with dermal papilla (DP) cells in low attachment plates, we established the media and culture conditions that best supported the viability, signalling and remodelling of the cell aggregates to form 3D KC-DP spheroids with the expression of both DP inductiveness and hair follicle lineage genes. We show that long-term growth and maturation of KC cells in these spheroids was supported by incorporation into epidermal-dermal constructs but not in scaffold-less media. When cultured, the bio-fabricated constructs developed invaginations from the integrated spheroids with follicle-forming potential. The generation of these constructs is a step towards the development of functional hair-bearing skin mimetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chew Teng Tan
- ASTAR Skin Research Labs, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore
| | - Zhenn Yi Leo
- ASTAR Skin Research Labs, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore
| | - Chin Yan Lim
- ASTAR Skin Research Labs, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore.,Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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11
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A preclinical model of cutaneous melanoma based on reconstructed human epidermis. Sci Rep 2022; 12:16269. [PMID: 36175453 PMCID: PMC9522649 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-19307-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Malignant melanoma is among the tumor entities with the highest increase of incidence worldwide. To elucidate melanoma progression and develop new effective therapies, rodent models are commonly used. While these do not adequately reflect human physiology, two-dimensional cell cultures lack crucial elements of the tumor microenvironment. To address this shortcoming, we have developed a melanoma skin equivalent based on an open-source epidermal model. Melanoma cell lines with different driver mutations were incorporated into these models forming distinguishable tumor aggregates within a stratified epidermis. Although barrier properties of the skin equivalents were not affected by incorporation of melanoma cells, their presence resulted in a higher metabolic activity indicated by an increased glucose consumption. Furthermore, we re-isolated single cells from the models to characterize the proliferation state within the respective model. The applicability of our model for tumor therapeutics was demonstrated by treatment with a commonly used v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (BRAF) inhibitor vemurafenib. This selective BRAF inhibitor successfully reduced tumor growth in the models harboring BRAF-mutated melanoma cells. Hence, our model is a promising tool to investigate melanoma development and as a preclinical model for drug discovery.
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12
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Talbott HE, Mascharak S, Griffin M, Wan DC, Longaker MT. Wound healing, fibroblast heterogeneity, and fibrosis. Cell Stem Cell 2022; 29:1161-1180. [PMID: 35931028 PMCID: PMC9357250 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2022.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblasts are highly dynamic cells that play a central role in tissue repair and fibrosis. However, the mechanisms by which they contribute to both physiologic and pathologic states of extracellular matrix deposition and remodeling are just starting to be understood. In this review article, we discuss the current state of knowledge in fibroblast biology and heterogeneity, with a primary focus on the role of fibroblasts in skin wound repair. We also consider emerging techniques in the field, which enable an increasingly nuanced and contextualized understanding of these complex systems, and evaluate limitations of existing methodologies and knowledge. Collectively, this review spotlights a diverse body of research examining an often-overlooked cell type-the fibroblast-and its critical functions in wound repair and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather E Talbott
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Shamik Mascharak
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michelle Griffin
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Derrick C Wan
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Michael T Longaker
- Department of Surgery, Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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13
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Fernandes S, Vyas C, Lim P, Pereira RF, Virós A, Bártolo P. 3D Bioprinting: An Enabling Technology to Understand Melanoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14143535. [PMID: 35884596 PMCID: PMC9318274 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14143535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is a potentially fatal cancer with rising incidence over the last 50 years, associated with enhanced sun exposure and ultraviolet radiation. Its incidence is highest in people of European descent and the ageing population. There are multiple clinical and epidemiological variables affecting melanoma incidence and mortality, such as sex, ethnicity, UV exposure, anatomic site, and age. Although survival has improved in recent years due to advances in targeted and immunotherapies, new understanding of melanoma biology and disease progression is vital to improving clinical outcomes. Efforts to develop three-dimensional human skin equivalent models using biofabrication techniques, such as bioprinting, promise to deliver a better understanding of the complexity of melanoma and associated risk factors. These 3D skin models can be used as a platform for patient specific models and testing therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Fernandes
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (S.F.); (C.V.); (P.L.)
| | - Cian Vyas
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (S.F.); (C.V.); (P.L.)
- Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Peggy Lim
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (S.F.); (C.V.); (P.L.)
| | - Rúben F. Pereira
- ICBAS—Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal;
- i3S—Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
- INEB—Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Amaya Virós
- Skin Cancer and Ageing Laboratory, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK;
| | - Paulo Bártolo
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK; (S.F.); (C.V.); (P.L.)
- Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
- Correspondence: or
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14
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Cabaço LC, Tomás A, Pojo M, Barral DC. The Dark Side of Melanin Secretion in Cutaneous Melanoma Aggressiveness. Front Oncol 2022; 12:887366. [PMID: 35619912 PMCID: PMC9128548 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.887366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin cancers are among the most common cancers worldwide and are increasingly prevalent. Cutaneous melanoma (CM) is characterized by the malignant transformation of melanocytes in the epidermis. Although CM shows lower incidence than other skin cancers, it is the most aggressive and responsible for the vast majority of skin cancer-related deaths. Indeed, 75% of patients present with invasive or metastatic tumors, even after surgical excision. In CM, the photoprotective pigment melanin, which is produced by melanocytes, plays a central role in the pathology of the disease. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet radiation and scavenges reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) resulting from the radiation exposure. However, the scavenged ROS/RNS modify melanin and lead to the induction of signature DNA damage in CM cells, namely cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers, which are known to promote CM immortalization and carcinogenesis. Despite triggering the malignant transformation of melanocytes and promoting initial tumor growth, the presence of melanin inside CM cells is described to negatively regulate their invasiveness by increasing cell stiffness and reducing elasticity. Emerging evidence also indicates that melanin secreted from CM cells is required for the immunomodulation of tumor microenvironment. Indeed, melanin transforms dermal fibroblasts in cancer-associated fibroblasts, suppresses the immune system and promotes tumor angiogenesis, thus sustaining CM progression and metastasis. Here, we review the current knowledge on the role of melanin secretion in CM aggressiveness and the molecular machinery involved, as well as the impact in tumor microenvironment and immune responses. A better understanding of this role and the molecular players involved could enable the modulation of melanin secretion to become a therapeutic strategy to impair CM invasion and metastasis and, hence, reduce the burden of CM-associated deaths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís C Cabaço
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), NOVA Medical School, NMS, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Tomás
- Unidade de Investigação em Patobiologia Molecular (UIPM), Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil E.P.E., Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Marta Pojo
- Unidade de Investigação em Patobiologia Molecular (UIPM), Instituto Português de Oncologia de Lisboa Francisco Gentil E.P.E., Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Duarte C Barral
- Chronic Diseases Research Center (CEDOC), NOVA Medical School, NMS, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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15
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Schäfer MEA, Keller F, Schumacher J, Haas H, Vascotto F, Sahin U, Hafner M, Rudolf R. 3D Melanoma Cocultures as Improved Models for Nanoparticle-Mediated Delivery of RNA to Tumors. Cells 2022; 11:cells11061026. [PMID: 35326474 PMCID: PMC8946997 DOI: 10.3390/cells11061026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer therapy is an emergent application for mRNA therapeutics. While in tumor immunotherapy, mRNA encoding for tumor-associated antigens is delivered to antigen-presenting cells in spleen and lymph nodes, other therapeutic options benefit from immediate delivery of mRNA nanomedicines directly to the tumor. However, tumor targeting of mRNA therapeutics is still a challenge, since, in addition to delivery of the cargo to the tumor, specifics of the targeted cell type as well as its interplay with the tumor microenvironment are crucial for successful intervention. This study investigated lipoplex nanoparticle-mediated mRNA delivery to spheroid cell culture models of melanoma. Insights into cell-type specific targeting, non-cell-autonomous effects, and penetration capacity in tumor and stroma cells of the mRNA lipoplex nanoparticles were obtained. It was shown that both coculture of different cell types as well as three-dimensional cell growth characteristics can modulate distribution and transfection efficiency of mRNA lipoplex formulations. The results demonstrate that three-dimensional coculture spheroids can provide a valuable surplus of information in comparison to adherent cells. Thus, they may represent in vitro models with enhanced predictivity for the in vivo activity of cancer nanotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian E. A. Schäfer
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (M.E.A.S.); (F.K.); (M.H.)
| | - Florian Keller
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (M.E.A.S.); (F.K.); (M.H.)
| | - Jens Schumacher
- Biopharmaceutical New Technology (BioNTech) SE, 55131 Mainz, Germany; (J.S.); (H.H.); (U.S.)
| | - Heinrich Haas
- Biopharmaceutical New Technology (BioNTech) SE, 55131 Mainz, Germany; (J.S.); (H.H.); (U.S.)
| | - Fulvia Vascotto
- Translational Oncology (TRON), University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 55131 Mainz, Germany;
| | - Ugur Sahin
- Biopharmaceutical New Technology (BioNTech) SE, 55131 Mainz, Germany; (J.S.); (H.H.); (U.S.)
| | - Mathias Hafner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (M.E.A.S.); (F.K.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Medical Technology, Heidelberg University and Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Rudolf
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (M.E.A.S.); (F.K.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Medical Technology, Heidelberg University and Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany
- Center for Mass Spectrometry and Optical Spectroscopy (CeMOS), Hochschule Mannheim, 68163 Mannheim, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-621-292-6804
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16
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Zhang R, Zheng S, Guo Z, Wang Y, Yang G, Yin Z, Luo L. L-Theanine inhibits melanoma cell growth and migration via regulating expression of the clock gene BMAL1. Eur J Nutr 2022; 61:763-777. [PMID: 34542664 DOI: 10.1007/s00394-021-02677-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE L-Theanine is a unique non-protein amino acid found in green tea, which has been identified as a safe dietary supplement. It has been reported that L-theanine exerts various biological activities. In this study, we explored the anti-cancer effects of L-theanine on melanoma cells. METHODS A375, B16-F10, and PIG1 cell lines were used in the present study. EdU labeling, TUNEL and Annexin V/PI staining, wound-healing, and transwell migration assay were performed to detect the effects of L-theanine on melanoma cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration. Brain and muscle Arnt-like protein 1 (BMAL1) was knocked down in melanoma cells to evaluate if L-theanine plays the anti-cancer role through regulating circadian rhythm of melanoma cells. The western blot, qRT-PCR, and dual luciferase assay were performed to explore the mechanism involved in the effects of L-theanine on melanoma cells. RESULTS L-Theanine apparently reduced the viability of melanoma cells. Further experiments showed that L-theanine attenuated the proliferation and migration, and promoted apoptosis of melanoma cells. L-Theanine significantly enhanced the expression of BMAL1, a clock gene in melanoma cells. Down-regulation of BMAL1 suppressed the anti-cancer effects of L-theanine on melanoma cells. Further experiments indicated that the p53 transcriptional activity raised by L-theanine was dependent on BMAL1 expression in melanoma cells. CONCLUSION L-Theanine exerts the anti-cancer effect on melanoma cells through attenuating the proliferation and migration, and promoting apoptosis of them, which is dependent on the regulation of the clock gene Bmal1 in melanoma cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruyi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shuangning Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yanan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Guocui Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhimin Yin
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210046, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Lan Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China.
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17
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Generation of a 3D melanoma model and visualization of doxorubicin uptake by fluorescence imaging. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2022; 58:44-53. [PMID: 34981409 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-021-00636-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma is the most dangerous type of skin cancer and is responsible for 75% of deaths from skin cancers. For an accurate evaluation of potential treatment efficacy, it is important to use study models as close as possible to the in vivo conditions. A 3D model consisting of B16F10 spheroids was developed using liquid overlay technique on plates coated with 1% agarose, in the presence of 1% methylcellulose and L929-conditioned medium. The model is suitable and can be further used for more complex in vitro drug testing than the classical 2D approach. For exemplification, the behavior of a well-known cytostatic, doxorubicin (DOX), was evaluated in spheroids as compared to classical 2D culture conditions. Fluorescence imaging was used to visualize DOX uptake by B16F10 spheroids at different periods of time. The results showed that a much higher DOX concentration is necessary to produce similar effects compared with the monolayer. The fluorescence images revealed that at least 4 h of stimulation is needed for a sufficient DOX uptake. The 3D model developed in this study was suitable to investigate drug penetration in time. Our findings may explain the decrease of the doxorubicin therapeutical effect, suggesting the need of maintaining the drug concentration at the tumoral place for at least 2 h upon administration. Similar or more advanced studies can lead to a better understanding of drug delivery kinetics and distribution upon administration, conducing toward a better performance in designing suitable delivery systems for obtaining the optimum dose-response effect.
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18
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Balandis B, Mickevičius V, Petrikaitė V. Exploration of Benzenesulfonamide-Bearing Imidazole Derivatives Activity in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer and Melanoma 2D and 3D Cell Cultures. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:1158. [PMID: 34832940 PMCID: PMC8625351 DOI: 10.3390/ph14111158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterocyclic compounds are one of the main groups of organic compounds possessing wide range of applications in various areas of science and their derivatives are present in many bioactive structures. They display a wide variety of biological activities. Recently, more and more attention has been focused to such heterocyclic compounds as azoles. In this work, we have synthesized a series of new imidazole derivatives incorporating a benzenesulfonamide moiety in their structure, which then were evaluated for their cytotoxicity against human triple-negative breast cancer MDA-MB-231 and human malignant melanoma IGR39 cell lines by MTT assay. Benzenesulfonamide-bearing imidazole derivatives containing 4-chloro and 3,4-dichlorosubstituents in benzene ring, and 2-ethylthio and 3-ethyl groups in imidazole ring have been determined as the most active compounds. Half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) of the most cytotoxic compound was 27.8 ± 2.8 µM against IGR39 cell line and 20.5 ± 3.6 µM against MDA-MB-231 cell line. Compounds reduced cell colony formation of both cell lines and inhibited the growth and viability of IGR39 cell spheroids more efficiently compared to triple-negative breast cancer spheroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benas Balandis
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilėnų pl. 19, LT-50254 Kaunas, Lithuania;
| | - Vytautas Mickevičius
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilėnų pl. 19, LT-50254 Kaunas, Lithuania;
| | - Vilma Petrikaitė
- Laboratory of Drug Targets Histopathology, Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Sukilėlių pr. 13, LT-50162 Kaunas, Lithuania;
- Institute of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, A. Mickevičiaus g. 9, LT-44307 Kaunas, Lithuania
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19
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Matias M, Pinho JO, Penetra MJ, Campos G, Reis CP, Gaspar MM. The Challenging Melanoma Landscape: From Early Drug Discovery to Clinical Approval. Cells 2021; 10:3088. [PMID: 34831311 PMCID: PMC8621991 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is recognized as the most dangerous type of skin cancer, with high mortality and resistance to currently used treatments. To overcome the limitations of the available therapeutic options, the discovery and development of new, more effective, and safer therapies is required. In this review, the different research steps involved in the process of antimelanoma drug evaluation and selection are explored, including information regarding in silico, in vitro, and in vivo experiments, as well as clinical trial phases. Details are given about the most used cell lines and assays to perform both two- and three-dimensional in vitro screening of drug candidates towards melanoma. For in vivo studies, murine models are, undoubtedly, the most widely used for assessing the therapeutic potential of new compounds and to study the underlying mechanisms of action. Here, the main melanoma murine models are described as well as other animal species. A section is dedicated to ongoing clinical studies, demonstrating the wide interest and successful efforts devoted to melanoma therapy, in particular at advanced stages of the disease, and a final section includes some considerations regarding approval for marketing by regulatory agencies. Overall, considerable commitment is being directed to the continuous development of optimized experimental models, important for the understanding of melanoma biology and for the evaluation and validation of novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Matias
- Research Institute for Medicines, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jacinta O Pinho
- Research Institute for Medicines, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria João Penetra
- Research Institute for Medicines, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Campos
- CICS-UBI-Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6201-506 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Catarina Pinto Reis
- Research Institute for Medicines, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Manuela Gaspar
- Research Institute for Medicines, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
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20
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Grape Pomace for Topical Application: Green NaDES Sustainable Extraction, Skin Permeation Studies, Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities Characterization in 3D Human Keratinocytes. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11081181. [PMID: 34439847 PMCID: PMC8393215 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Food waste is a global problem due to its environmental and economic impact, so there is great demand for the exploitation of new functional applications. The winemaking process leads to an incomplete extraction of high-value compounds, leaving the pomace still rich in polyphenols. This study was aimed at optimising and validating sustainable routes toward the extraction and further valorisation of these polyphenols, particularly for cosmeceutical applications. New formulations based on red grape pomace polyphenols and natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDESs) were here investigated, namely betaine combined with citric acid (BET-CA), urea (BET-U) and ethylene glycol (BET-EG), in which DESs were used both as extracting and carrying agents for polyphenols. The flavonoid profile determined by HPLC-MS/MS analysis showed similar malvidin content (51-56 μg mL-1) in the DES combinations, while BET-CA gave the best permeation performance in Franz cells, so it was further investigated in 3D human keratinocytes (HaCat spheroids) injured with the pro-oxidant agent menadione. BET-CA treatment showed good intracellular antioxidant activity (IC50 0.15 ± 0.02 μg mL-1 in malvidin content) and significantly decreased (p < 0.001) the release of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-8, improving cell viability. Thus, BET-CA formulation is worthy of investigation for potential use as a cosmetic ingredient to reduce oxidative stress and inflammation, which are causes of skin aging.
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21
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Ebner-Peking P, Krisch L, Wolf M, Hochmann S, Hoog A, Vári B, Muigg K, Poupardin R, Scharler C, Schmidhuber S, Russe E, Stachelscheid H, Schneeberger A, Schallmoser K, Strunk D. Self-assembly of differentiated progenitor cells facilitates spheroid human skin organoid formation and planar skin regeneration. Theranostics 2021; 11:8430-8447. [PMID: 34373751 PMCID: PMC8344006 DOI: 10.7150/thno.59661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Self-assembly of solid organs from single cells would greatly expand applicability of regenerative medicine. Stem/progenitor cells can self-organize into micro-sized organ units, termed organoids, partially modelling tissue function and regeneration. Here we demonstrated 3D self-assembly of adult and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived fibroblasts, keratinocytes and endothelial progenitors into both, planar human skin in vivo and a novel type of spheroid-shaped skin organoids in vitro, under the aegis of human platelet lysate. Methods: Primary endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs), skin fibroblasts (FBs) and keratinocytes (KCs) were isolated from human tissues and polyclonally propagated under 2D xeno-free conditions. Human tissue-derived iPSCs were differentiated into endothelial cells (hiPSC-ECs), fibroblasts (hiPSC-FBs) and keratinocytes (hiPSC-KCs) according to efficiency-optimized protocols. Cell identity and purity were confirmed by flow cytometry and clonogenicity indicated their stem/progenitor potential. Triple cell type floating spheroids formation was promoted by human platelet-derived growth factors containing culture conditions, using nanoparticle cell labelling for monitoring the organization process. Planar human skin regeneration was assessed in full-thickness wounds of immune-deficient mice upon transplantation of hiPSC-derived single cell suspensions. Results: Organoids displayed a distinct architecture with surface-anchored keratinocytes surrounding a stromal core, and specific signaling patterns in response to inflammatory stimuli. FGF-7 mRNA transfection was required to accelerate keratinocyte long-term fitness. Stratified human skin also self-assembled within two weeks after either adult- or iPSC-derived skin cell-suspension liquid-transplantation, healing deep wounds of mice. Transplant vascularization significantly accelerated in the presence of co-transplanted endothelial progenitors. Mechanistically, extracellular vesicles mediated the multifactorial platelet-derived trophic effects. No tumorigenesis occurred upon xenografting. Conclusion: This illustrates the superordinate progenitor self-organization principle and permits novel rapid 3D skin-related pharmaceutical high-content testing opportunities with floating spheroid skin organoids. Multi-cell transplant self-organization facilitates development of iPSC-based organ regeneration strategies using cell suspension transplantation supported by human platelet factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Ebner-Peking
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Linda Krisch
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Martin Wolf
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Sarah Hochmann
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Anna Hoog
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Balázs Vári
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Katharina Muigg
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Rodolphe Poupardin
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Cornelia Scharler
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Elisabeth Russe
- Department of Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Hospital Barmherzige Brueder, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | | | - Katharina Schallmoser
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Dirk Strunk
- Cell Therapy Institute, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg (SCI-TReCS), University Clinic, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
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22
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Han SJ, Kwon S, Kim KS. Challenges of applying multicellular tumor spheroids in preclinical phase. Cancer Cell Int 2021; 21:152. [PMID: 33663530 PMCID: PMC7934264 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-021-01853-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The three-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTs) model is becoming an essential tool in cancer research as it expresses an intermediate complexity between 2D monolayer models and in vivo solid tumors. MCTs closely resemble in vivo solid tumors in many aspects, such as the heterogeneous architecture, internal gradients of signaling factors, nutrients, and oxygenation. MCTs have growth kinetics similar to those of in vivo tumors, and the cells in spheroid mimic the physical interaction of the tumors, such as cell-to-cell and cell-to-extracellular matrix interactions. These similarities provide great potential for studying the biological properties of tumors and a promising platform for drug screening and therapeutic efficacy evaluation. However, MCTs are not well adopted as preclinical tools for studying tumor behavior and therapeutic efficacy up to now. In this review, we addressed the challenges with MCTs application and discussed various efforts to overcome the challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Jik Han
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Korea
| | - Sangwoo Kwon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Korea
| | - Kyung Sook Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Korea.
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23
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Schäfer MEA, Klicks J, Hafner M, Rudolf R. Preparation, Drug Treatment, and Immunohistological Analysis of Tri-Culture Spheroid 3D Melanoma-Like Models. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2265:173-183. [PMID: 33704714 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1205-7_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Most currently available three-dimensional melanoma models have either focused on simplicity or were optimized for physiological relevance. Accordingly, these paradigms have been either composed of malignant cells only or they were sophisticated human skin equivalents featuring multiple cell types and skin-like organization. Here, an intermediate spheroid-based assay system is presented, which uses tri-cultures of human CCD-1137Sk fibroblasts, HaCaT keratinocytes, and SK-MEL-28 melanoma cells. Being made of cell lines, these spheroids can be reliably reproduced without any special equipment using standard culture procedures, and they feature different aspects of skin and early stage melanoma. Therefore, this kind of model can be useful for lead-compound testing or addressing fundamental principles of early melanoma formation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia Klicks
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Mathias Hafner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Rudolf
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Hochschule Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.
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24
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Fröhlich E. Issues with Cancer Spheroid Models in Therapeutic Drug Screening. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 26:2137-2148. [PMID: 32067603 DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200218094200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In vitro screening for anti-cancer agents currently uses mainly cell lines in 2D culture. It is generally assumed that 3D culture, namely spheroids, represents physiologically more relevant models for tumors. Unfortunately, drug testing in spheroids is not as easy and reproducible as in 2D culture because there are factors that limit the universal use of spheroids as screening platforms. Technical problems in the generation of uniform spheroids, cell/tumor-specific differences in the ability to form spheroids, and more complex readout parameters are the main reasons for differences between spheroid data. The review discusses requirements for cancer spheroids to be representative models, suitable methodologies to generate spheroids for the screening and readout parameters for the evaluation of anti-cancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonore Fröhlich
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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25
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Advances in generation of three-dimensional skin equivalents: pre-clinical studies to clinical therapies. Cytotherapy 2020; 23:1-9. [PMID: 33189572 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2020.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The inability of two-dimensional cell culture systems to adequately map the structure and function of complex organs like skin necessitates the development of three-dimensional (3D) skin models. A diverse range of 3D skin equivalents have been developed over the last few decades for studying complex properties of skin as well as for drug discovery and clinical applications for skin regeneration in chronic wounds, such as diabetic foot ulcers, where the normal mechanism of wound healing is compromised. These 3D skin substitutes also serve as a suitable alternative to animal models in industrial applications and fundamental research. With the emergence of tissue engineering, new scaffolds and matrices have been integrated into 3D cell culture systems, along with gene therapy approaches, to increase the efficacy of transplanted cells in skin regeneration. This review summarizes recent approaches to the development of skin equivalents as well as different models for studying skin diseases and properties and current therapeutic applications of skin substitutes.
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26
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Woappi Y, Altomare D, Creek KE, Pirisi L. Self-assembling 3D spheroid cultures of human neonatal keratinocytes have enhanced regenerative properties. Stem Cell Res 2020; 49:102048. [PMID: 33128954 PMCID: PMC7805020 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2020.102048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Relative to conventional two-dimensional (2-D) culture, three-dimensional (3-D) suspension culture of epithelial cells more closely mimics the in vivo cell microenvironment regarding cell architecture, cell to matrix interaction, and osmosis exchange. However, primary normal human keratinocytes (NHKc) rapidly undergo terminal differentiation and detachment-induced cell death (anoikis) upon disconnection from the basement membrane, thus greatly constraining their use in 3-D suspension culture models. Here, we examined the 3-D anchorage-free growth potential of NHKc isolated from neonatal skin explants of 59 different individuals. We found that 40% of all isolates naturally self-assembled into multicellular spheroids within 24 h in anchorage-free culture, while 60% did not. Placing a single spheroid back into 2-D monolayer culture yielded proliferating cells that expressed elevated levels of nuclear P63 and basal cytokeratin 14. These cells also displayed prolonged keratinocyte renewal and a gene expression profile corresponding to cellular heterogeneity, quiescence, and de-differentiation. Notably, spheroid-derived (SD) NHKc were enriched for a P63/K14 double-positive population that formed holoclonal colonies and reassembled into multicellular spheroids during 3-D suspension subculture. This study reveals marked phenotypic differences in neonatal keratinocyte suspension cultures isolated from different individuals and present a model system that can be readily employed to study epithelial cell behavior, along with a variety of dermatological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvon Woappi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29208, USA; Department of Dermatology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Diego Altomare
- Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Kim E Creek
- Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Lucia Pirisi
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29208, USA
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27
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Nürnberg E, Vitacolonna M, Klicks J, von Molitor E, Cesetti T, Keller F, Bruch R, Ertongur-Fauth T, Riedel K, Scholz P, Lau T, Schneider R, Meier J, Hafner M, Rudolf R. Routine Optical Clearing of 3D-Cell Cultures: Simplicity Forward. Front Mol Biosci 2020; 7:20. [PMID: 32154265 PMCID: PMC7046628 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2020.00020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional cell cultures, such as spheroids and organoids, serve as increasingly important models in fundamental and applied research and start to be used for drug screening purposes. Optical tissue clearing procedures are employed to enhance visualization of fluorescence-stained organs, tissues, and three-dimensional cell cultures. To get a more systematic overview about the effects and applicability of optical tissue clearing on three-dimensional cell cultures, we compared six different clearing/embedding protocols on seven types of spheroid- and chip-based three-dimensional cell cultures of approximately 300 μm in size that were stained with nuclear dyes, immunofluorescence, cell trackers, and cyan fluorescent protein. Subsequent whole mount confocal microscopy and semi-automated image analysis were performed to quantify the effects. Quantitative analysis included fluorescence signal intensity and signal-to-noise ratio as a function of z-depth as well as segmentation and counting of nuclei and immunopositive cells. In general, these analyses revealed five key points, which largely confirmed current knowledge and were quantified in this study. First, there was a massive variability of effects of different clearing protocols on sample transparency and shrinkage as well as on dye quenching. Second, all tested clearing protocols worked more efficiently on samples prepared with one cell type than on co-cultures. Third, z-compensation was imperative to minimize variations in signal-to-noise ratio. Fourth, a combination of sample-inherent cell density, sample shrinkage, uniformity of signal-to-noise ratio, and image resolution had a strong impact on data segmentation, cell counts, and relative numbers of immunofluorescence-positive cells. Finally, considering all mentioned aspects and including a wish for simplicity and speed of protocols - in particular, for screening purposes - clearing with 88% Glycerol appeared to be the most promising option amongst the ones tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Nürnberg
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany.,Zentralinstitut für Seelische Gesundheit, Department of Translational Brain Research, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Mario Vitacolonna
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Julia Klicks
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Elena von Molitor
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Tiziana Cesetti
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Florian Keller
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Roman Bruch
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Thorsten Lau
- Zentralinstitut für Seelische Gesundheit, Department of Translational Brain Research, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | | | - Julia Meier
- TIP Oncology, Merck Healthcare KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Mathias Hafner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Rudolf
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, Mannheim, Germany
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