Exosomal microRNA-107 reverses chemotherapeutic drug resistance of gastric cancer cells through HMGA2/mTOR/P-gp pathway

Role of exosomal miRNAs and macrophage polarization in gastric cancer: A novel therapeutic strategy

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common gastrointestinal cancers worldwide, with consistently high morbidity and mortality rates and poor prognosis. Most patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage due to the lack of specific presentation in the early stages. Exosomes are a class of extracellular vesicles (EVs) widely found in body fluids and can release genetic material or multiple proteins to facilitate intercellular communication. In recent years, exosomal miRNAs have gained attention for their role in various cancers. These exosomal miRNAs can impact GC development and progression by targeting specific genes or influencing signaling pathways and cytokines involved in Angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), drug resistance, and immune regulation. They show great potential in terms of diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of GC. Notably, the gastrointestinal tract has the largest number of macrophages, which play a significant role in GC progression. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are the most abundant immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and can influence macrophage programming through various mediators, including macrophage polarization. Macrophage polarization is involved in inflammatory responses and significantly impacts the GC process.

Exosomal signaling in cancer metastasis: Molecular insights and therapeutic opportunities

Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles that play a role in exchanging biological products across membranes and serve as intermediaries in intercellular communication to maintain normal homeostasis. Numerous molecules, including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are enclosed in exosomes. Exosomes are constantly released into the extracellular environment and exhibit distinct characteristics based on the secreted cells that produce them. Exosome-mediated cell-to-cell communication has reportedly been shown to affect multiple cancer hallmarks, such as immune response modulation, pre-metastatic niche formation, angiogenesis, stromal cell reprogramming, extracellular matrix architecture remodeling, or even drug resistance, and eventually the development and metastasis of cancer cells. Exosomes can be used as therapeutic targets and possible diagnostic biomarkers by selectively loading oncogenic molecules into them. We highlight the important roles that exosomes play in cancer development in this review, which may lead to the development of fresh approaches for future clinical uses.

Exploring extracellular RNA as drivers of chemotherapy resistance in cancer

Chemotherapy resistance (CR) represents one of the most important barriers to effective oncological therapy and often leads to ineffective intervention and unfavorable clinical prognosis. Emerging studies have emphasized the vital significance of extracellular RNA (exRNA) in influencing CR. This thorough assessment intends to explore the multifaceted contributions of exRNA, such as exosomal RNA, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs, to CR in cancer. We discuss the mechanisms by which exRNA facilitates drug resistance, such as modulating gene expression, influencing the tumor microenvironment, and facilitating intercellular communication. Furthermore, we examine the potential of exRNA as prognostic factor for determining oncology treatment efficacy and their emerging role as therapeutic targets. Diagnostic and prognostic applications of exRNA biomarkers are considered, alongside current methodologies for their detection and quantification. Additionally, we review recent advances in exRNA-targeted therapies, highlighting ongoing clinical trials and therapeutic strategies aimed at overcoming chemoresistance. Despite the promise of exRNA research, several challenges remain, including technical limitations and the biological complexity of exRNA networks. This review underscores the importance of continued investigation into exRNA biology and its therapeutic potential, which in the future may provide new avenues for cancer treatment and tailored medical strategies. By elucidating the role of exRNA in CR, this article aims to provide a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians seeking to improve the effectiveness of carcinoma management approaches.

Molecular mechanisms of mTOR-mediated cisplatin response in tumor cells

Cisplatin (CDDP) is one of the main chemotherapeutic drugs that is widely used in many cancers. However, CDDP resistance is a frequent therapeutic challenge that reduces prognosis in cancer patients. Since, CDDP has noticeable side effects in normal tissues and organs, it is necessary to assess the molecular mechanisms associated with CDDP resistance to improve the therapeutic methods in cancer patients. Drug efflux, detoxifying systems, DNA repair mechanisms, and drug-induced apoptosis are involved in multidrug resistance in CDDP-resistant tumor cells. Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), as a serine/threonine kinase has a pivotal role in various cellular mechanisms such as autophagy, metabolism, drug efflux, and cell proliferation. Although, mTOR is mainly activated by PI3K/AKT pathway, it can also be regulated by many other signaling pathways. PI3K/Akt/mTOR axis functions as a key modulator of drug resistance and unfavorable prognosis in different cancers. Regarding, the pivotal role of mTOR in CDDP response, in the present review we discussed the molecular mechanisms that regulate mTOR mediated CDDP response in tumor cells.

Emerging role of exosomes in cancer therapy: progress and challenges

This review highlights recent progress in exosome-based drug delivery for cancer therapy, covering exosome biogenesis, cargo selection mechanisms, and their application across multiple cancer types. As small extracellular vesicles, exosomes exhibit high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, making them ideal drug delivery vehicles capable of efficiently targeting cancer cells, minimizing off-target damage and side effects. This review aims to explore the potential of exosomes in cancer therapy, with a focus on applications in chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunomodulation. Additionally, challenges related to exosome production and standardization are analyzed, highlighting the importance of addressing these issues for their clinical application. In conclusion, exosome-based drug delivery systems offer promising potential for future cancer therapies. Further research should aim to enhance production efficiency and facilitate clinical translation, paving the way for innovative cancer treatment strategies.

Exosomal microRNAs: impact on cancer detection, treatment, and monitoring

Exosomes, measuring between 30 and 150 nm in diameter, are small vesicles enclosed by a lipid bilayer membrane. They are released by various cells in the body and carry a diverse payload of molecules, including proteins, lipids, mRNA, and different RNA species such as long non-coding RNA, circular RNA, and microRNA (miRNA). With lengths of approximately 19-22 nucleotides, miRNAs constitute the predominant cargo in exosomes and serve as crucial regulators of protein biosynthesis. In cancer detection, exosomal miRNAs show promise as non-invasive biomarkers due to their stability and presence in various bodily fluids, aiding in early detection and precise diagnosis with specific miRNA signatures linked to different cancer types. Moreover, exosomal miRNAs influence treatment outcomes by affecting cellular processes like cell growth, cell death, and drug resistance, thereby impacting response to therapy. Additionally, they serve as indicators of disease progression and treatment response, providing insights that can guide treatment decisions and improve patient care. Through longitudinal studies, changes in exosomal miRNA profiles have been observed to correlate with disease progression, metastasis, and response to therapy, highlighting their potential for real-time monitoring of tumor dynamics and treatment efficacy. Understanding the intricate roles of exosomal miRNAs in cancer biology offers opportunities for developing innovative diagnostic tools and therapeutic strategies tailored to individual patients, ultimately advancing precision medicine approaches and improving outcomes for cancer patients. This review aims to provide an understanding of the role of exosomal miRNAs in cancer detection, treatment, and monitoring, shedding light on their potential for revolutionising oncology practices and patient care.

CircRNAs as upstream regulators of miRNA//HMGA2 axis in human cancer

High mobility group protein A2 (HMGA2) is widely recognized as a chromatin-binding protein, whose overexpression is observed in nearly all human cancers. It exerts its oncogenic effects by influencing various cellular processes such as the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, cell differentiation, and DNA damage repair. MicroRNA (miRNA) serves as a pivotal gene expression regulator, concurrently modulating multiple genes implicated in cancer progression, including HMGA2. It also serves as a significant biomarker for cancer. Circular RNA (circRNA) plays a crucial role in gene regulation primarily by sequestering miRNAs and impeding their ability to enhance the expression of other genes, including HMGA2. Increasingly, studies have underscored the vital role of miRNA/HMGA2 interactions in cancer. Given the significance of circRNA as an upstream regulatory mediator and the complexity of regulatory mechanisms, we hereby present a comprehensive overview of the pivotal role of circRNAs as upstream regulators of the miRNA//HMGA2 axis in human cancers. This insight may herald a novel direction for future cancer research.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-driven cancer drug resistance: biological profile, non-coding RNAs, drugs and nanomodulators

Drug resistance has compromised the efficacy of chemotherapy. The dysregulation of drug transporters including P-glycoprotein (P-gp) can mediate drug resistance through drug efflux. In this review, we highlight the role of P-gp in cancer drug resistance and the related molecular pathways, including phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), along with non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Extracellular vesicles secreted by the cells can transport ncRNAs and other proteins to change P-gp activity in cancer drug resistance. P-gp requires ATP to function, and the induction of mitochondrial dysfunction or inhibition of glutamine metabolism can impair P-gp function, thus increasing chemosensitivity. Phytochemicals, small molecules and nanoparticles have been introduced as P-gp inhibitors to increase drug sensitivity in human cancers.

The role of microRNAs in the gastric cancer tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the deadliest malignant tumors with unknown pathogenesis. Due to its treatment resistance, high recurrence rate, and lack of reliable early detection techniques, a majority of patients have a poor prognosis. Therefore, identifying new tumor biomarkers and therapeutic targets is essential. This review aims to provide fresh insights into enhancing the prognosis of patients with GC by summarizing the processes through which microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) and highlighting their critical role in the TME.

MAIN TEXT

A comprehensive literature review was conducted by focusing on the interactions among tumor cells, extracellular matrix, blood vessels, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and immune cells within the GC TME. The role of noncoding RNAs, known as miRNAs, in modulating the TME through various signaling pathways, cytokines, growth factors, and exosomes was specifically examined. Tumor formation, metastasis, and therapy in GC are significantly influenced by interactions within the TME. miRNAs regulate tumor progression by modulating these interactions through multiple signaling pathways, cytokines, growth factors, and exosomes. Dysregulation of miRNAs affects critical cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, angiogenesis, metastasis, and treatment resistance, contributing to the pathogenesis of GC.

CONCLUSIONS

miRNAs play a crucial role in the regulation of the GC TME, influencing tumor progression and patient prognosis. By understanding the mechanisms through which miRNAs control the TME, potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets can be identified to improve the prognosis of patients with GC.

Deciphering the Role of Exosomal Non-Coding RNA (ncRNA) in Drug Resistance of Gastrointestinal Tumors; an Updated Review

One of the most prevalent types of cancer worldwide today is gastric intestinal (GI) tumors. To guarantee their lives, people with a developed GI require palliative care. This covers the application of targeted medicines in addition to chemotherapy treatments including cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, oxaliplatin, paclitaxel, and pemetrexed. Because of the evidence of drug resistance emerging in poor patient outcomes and prognoses, determining the exact process of medication resistance is motivated. Besides, it is noteworthy that exosomes and noncoding RNAs, like microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), produced from tumor cells are implicated in both GI medication resistance and the carcinogenesis and development of GI disease. Biochemical events related to the cell cycle, differentiation of cells, growth, and pluripotency, in addition to gene transcription, splicing, and epigenetics, are all regulated by noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs). Therefore, it should come as a wonder that several ncRNAs have been connected in recent years to drug susceptibility and resistance as well as tumorigenesis. Additionally, through communicating directly with medications, altering the transcriptome of tumor cells, and affecting the immune system, exosomes may govern treatment resistance. Because of this, exosomal lncRNAs often act as a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) of miRNAs to carry out its role in modifying drug resistance. In light of this, we provide an overview of the roles and processes of ncRNA-enriched exosomes in GI medication resistance.

HMGA2 alleviates ferroptosis by promoting GPX4 expression in pancreatic cancer cells

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most malignant tumor types and is characterized by high metastasis ability and a low survival rate. As a chromatin-binding protein, HMGA2 is widely overexpressed and considered an oncogene with various undefined regulatory mechanisms. Herein, we demonstrated that HMGA2 is highly expressed in pancreatic cancer tissues, mainly distributed in epithelial cells, and represents a subtype of high epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Deletion of HMGA2 inhibits tumor malignancy through cell proliferation, metastasis, and xenograft tumor growth in vivo. Moreover, HMGA2 enhanced the cellular redox status by inhibiting reactive oxygen species and promoting glutathione production. Importantly, ferroptotic cell death was significantly ameliorated in cells overexpressing HMGA2. Conversely, HMGA2 deletion exacerbated ferroptosis. Mechanistically, HMGA2 activated GPX4 expression through transcriptional and translational regulation. HMGA2 binds and promotes cis-element modification in the promoter region of the GPX4 gene by enhancing enhancer activity through increased H3K4 methylation and H3K27 acetylation. Furthermore, HMGA2 stimulated GPX4 protein synthesis via the mTORC1-4EBP1 and -S6K signaling axes. The overexpression of HMGA2 alleviated the decrease in GPX4 protein levels resulting from the pharmacologic inhibition of mTORC1. Conversely, compared with the control, HMGA2 deletion more strongly reduced the phosphorylation of 4EBP1 and S6K. A strong positive correlation between HMGA2 and GPX4 expression was confirmed using immunohistochemical staining. We also demonstrated that HMGA2 mitigated the sensitivity of cancer cells to combination treatment with a ferroptosis inducer and mTORC1 inhibition or gemcitabine. In summary, our results revealed a regulatory mechanism by which HMGA2 coordinates GPX4 expression and underscores the potential value of targeting HMGA2 in cancer treatment.

Roles and application of exosomes in the development, diagnosis and treatment of gastric cancer

As important messengers of intercellular communication, exosomes can regulate local and distant cellular communication by transporting specific exosomal contents and can also promote or suppress the development and progression of gastric cancer (GC) by regulating the growth and proliferation of tumor cells, the tumor-related immune response and tumor angiogenesis. Exosomes transport bioactive molecules including DNA, proteins, and RNA (coding and noncoding) from donor cells to recipient cells, causing reprogramming of the target cells. In this review, we will describe how exosomes regulate the cellular immune response, tumor angiogenesis, proliferation and metastasis of GC cells, and the role and mechanism of exosome-based therapy in human cancer. We will also discuss the potential application value of exosomes as biomarkers in the diagnosis and treatment of GC and their relationship with drug resistance.

miRNA/epithelial-mesenchymal axis (EMT) axis as a key player in cancer progression and metastasis: A focus on gastric and bladder cancers

The metastasis a major hallmark of tumors that its significant is not only related to the basic research, but clinical investigations have revealed that majority of cancer deaths are due to the metastasis. The metastasis of tumor cells is significantly increased due to EMT mechanism and therefore, inhibition of EMT can reduce biological behaviors of tumor cells and improve the survival rate of patients. One of the gaps related to cancer metastasis is lack of specific focus on the EMT regulation in certain types of tumor cells. The gastric and bladder cancers are considered as two main reasons of death among patients in clinical level. Herein, the role of EMT in regulation of their progression is evaluated with a focus on the function of miRNAs. The inhibition/induction of EMT in these cancers and their ability in modulation of EMT-related factors including ZEB1/2 proteins, TGF-β, Snail and cadherin proteins are discussed. Moreover, lncRNAs and circRNAs in crosstalk of miRNA/EMT regulation in these tumors are discussed and final impact on cancer metastasis and response of tumor cells to the chemotherapy is evaluated. Moreover, the impact of miRNAs transferred by exosomes in regulation of EMT in these cancers are discussed.

Advances in the study of exosome-derived miRNAs in the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an inflammatory disease caused by autoantibodies, with high morbidity and mortality. It involves multiple systems, particularly the renal, which can lead to lupus nephritis (LN); its multi-system effects have a significant impact on the physical and mental health of patients. Exosomes are vesicles that are secreted during cell activity and carry a variety of nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. They are distributed through body fluids for cellular communication. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are nucleic acids that are packaged within the exosome that are taken up and released in response to changes in plasma membrane structure. MiRNAs are potential participants in immune and inflammatory responses, which are transported to target cells and can inhibit gene expression in receptor cells. It has been suggested that exosomal miRNA can regulate the pathogenesis of SLE and, as such, they are of value in diagnosis and treatment. In this paper, we focus on the research progress into exosomal miRNA in SLE and inspire new directions for SLE related research.

A state-of-art of underlying molecular mechanisms and pharmacological interventions/nanotherapeutics for cisplatin resistance in gastric cancer

The fourth common reason of death among patients is gastric cancer (GC) and it is a dominant tumor type in Ease Asia. One of the problems in GC therapy is chemoresistance. Cisplatin (CP) is a platinum compound that causes DNA damage in reducing tumor progression and viability of cancer cells. However, due to hyperactivation of drug efflux pumps, dysregulation of genes and interactions in tumor microenvironment, tumor cells can develop resistance to CP chemotherapy. The current review focuses on the CP resistance emergence in GC cells with emphasizing on molecular pathways, pharmacological compounds for reversing chemoresistance and the role of nanostructures. Changes in cell death mechanisms such as upregulation of pro-survival autophagy can prevent CP-mediated apoptosis that results in drug resistance. Moreover, increase in metastasis via EMT induction induces CP resistance. Dysregulation of molecular pathways such as PTEN, PI3K/Akt, Nrf2 and others result in changes in CP response of GC cells. Non-coding RNAs determine CP response of GC cells and application of pharmacological compounds with activity distinct of CP can result in sensitivity in tumor cells. Due to efficacy of exosomes in transferring bioactive molecules such as RNA and DNA molecules among GC cells, exosomes can also result in CP resistance. One of the newest progresses in overcoming CP resistance in GC is application of nanoplatforms for delivery of CP in GC therapy that they can increase accumulation of CP at tumor site and by suppressing carcinogenic factors and overcoming biological barriers, they increase CP toxicity on cancer cells.

Exosomes: Another intercellular lipometabolic communication mediators in digestive system neoplasms?

Neoplasms are one of the most concerned public health problems worldwide. Digestive system neoplasms, with a high morbidity and mortality, is one of the most common malignant tumors in human being. It is found that exosomes act as an intercellular communication media to carry the metabolic and genetic information of parental cells to target cells. Likely, exosomes participate in lipid metabolism and regulates multiple processes in digestive system neoplasms, including the information transmission among cancer cells, the formation of neoplastic microenvironment, and the neoplastic biological behaviors like metastasis, invasion, and the chemotherapy resistance. In this review, we firstly introduce the main mechanisms whereas exosomes act as intercellular lipometabolic communication mediator in digestive system neoplasms. Thereafter we introduce the relationship between exosomes lipid metabolism and various type of digestive system neoplasms, including gastric cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, and colorectal cancer. Eventually, we summarized and prospected the development and implication of exosomes in digestive system neoplasms. The further research of exosomes as intercellular lipid metabolism mediator will contribute to accurate and efficient diagnosis and treatment of digestive system neoplasms.

Extracellular vesicles: Emerging mediators of cell communication in gastrointestinal cancers exhibiting metabolic abnormalities

There is a complex interaction between pro-tumoural and anti-tumoural networks in the tumour microenvironment (TME). Throughout tumourigenesis, communication between malignant cells and various cells of the TME contributes to metabolic reprogramming. Tumour Dysregulation of metabolic pathways offer an evolutional advantage in the TME and enhance the tumour progression, invasiveness, and metastasis. Therefore, understanding these interactions within the TME is crucial for the development of innovative cancer treatments. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as carriers of various materials that include microRNAs, proteins, and lipids that play a vital role in the communication between tumour cells and non-tumour cells. EVs are actively involved in the metabolic reprogramming process. This review summarized recent findings regarding the involvement of EVs in the metabolic reprogramming of various cells in the TME of gastrointestinal cancers. Additionally, we highlight identified microRNAs involved in the reprogramming process in this group of cancers and explained the abnormal tumour metabolism targeted by exosomal cargos as well as the novel potential therapeutic approaches.

Drug Discovery and Development of miRNA-Based Nucleotide Drugs for Gastrointestinal Cancer

Short non-coding RNAs, miRNAs, play roles in the control of cell growth and differentiation in cancer. Reportedly, the introduction of miRNAs could reduce the biologically malignant behavior of cancer cells, suggesting a possible use as therapeutic reagents. Given that the forced expression of several miRNAs, including miR-302, results in the cellular reprograming of human and mouse cells, which is similar to the effects of the transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc, this suggests that the selective introduction of several miRNAs will be able to achieve anti-cancer effects at the epigenetic and metabolic levels. In this review article, we bring together the recent advances made in studies of microRNA-based therapeutic approaches to therapy-resistant cancers, especially in gastrointestinal organs.

Dysregulated Signalling Pathways Driving Anticancer Drug Resistance

One of the leading causes of death worldwide, in both men and women, is cancer. Despite the significant development in therapeutic strategies, the inevitable emergence of drug resistance limits the success and impedes the curative outcome. Intrinsic and acquired resistance are common mechanisms responsible for cancer relapse. Several factors crucially regulate tumourigenesis and resistance, including physical barriers, tumour microenvironment (TME), heterogeneity, genetic and epigenetic alterations, the immune system, tumour burden, growth kinetics and undruggable targets. Moreover, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), Notch, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrin-extracellular matrix (ECM), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), phosphoinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR), wingless-related integration site (Wnt/β-catenin), Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) and RAS/RAF/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathways are some of the key players that have a pivotal role in drug resistance mechanisms. To guide future cancer treatments and improve results, a deeper comprehension of drug resistance pathways is necessary. This review covers both intrinsic and acquired resistance and gives a comprehensive overview of recent research on mechanisms that enable cancer cells to bypass barriers put up by treatments, and, like "satellite navigation", find alternative routes by which to carry on their "journey" to cancer progression.

Extracellular Vesicles and Cancer Multidrug Resistance: Undesirable Intercellular Messengers?

Cancer multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the main mechanisms contributing to therapy failure and mortality. Overexpression of drug transporters of the ABC family (ATP-binding cassette) is a major cause of MDR. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles released by most cells of the organism involved in cell-cell communication. Their cargo mainly comprises, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, which are transferred from a donor cell to a target cell and lead to phenotypical changes. In this article, we review the scientific evidence addressing the regulation of ABC transporters by EV-mediated cell-cell communication. MDR transfer from drug-resistant to drug-sensitive cells has been identified in several tumor entities. This was attributed, in some cases, to the direct shuttle of transporter molecules or its coding mRNA between cells. Also, EV-mediated transport of regulatory proteins (e.g., transcription factors) and noncoding RNAs have been indicated to induce MDR. Conversely, the transfer of a drug-sensitive phenotype via EVs has also been reported. Additionally, interactions between non-tumor cells and the tumor cells with an impact on MDR are presented. Finally, we highlight uninvestigated aspects and possible approaches to exploiting this knowledge toward the identification of druggable processes and molecules and, ultimately, the development of novel therapeutic strategies.

An emphasis on the interaction of signaling pathways highlights the role of miRNAs in the etiology and treatment resistance of gastric cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is 4th in incidence and mortality rates globally. Several genetic and epigenetic factors, including microRNAs (miRNAs), affect its initiation and progression. miRNAs are short chains of nucleic acids that can regulate several cellular processes by controlling their gene expression. So, dysregulation of miRNAs expressions is associated with GC initiation, progression, invasion capacity, apoptosis evasions, angiogenesis, promotion and EMT enhancement. Of important pathways in GC and controlled by miRNAs are Wnt/β-catenin signaling, HMGA2/mTOR/P-gp, PI3K/AKT/c-Myc, VEGFR and TGFb signaling. Hence, this review was conducted to review an updated view of the role of miRNAs in GC pathogenesis and their modulatory effects on responses to different GC treatment modalities.

Role of identified proteins in the proteome profiles of CDK4/6 inhibitor-resistant breast cancer cell lines

Abemaciclib (Ab) and palbociclib (Pb) are CDK4/6 inhibitors used to cure advanced breast cancer (BC). However, acquired resistance is a major challenge. The molecular mechanisms and signature proteins of therapy resistance for Ab and Pb drugs need to be explored. Here we developed resistant cells for Ab and Pb drugs in MCF-7 cell lines and explored the mechanisms and signature proteins of therapy resistance in BC. Proteome profiling was performed using the label-free proteome-orbitrap-fusion-MS-MS technique. Gene ontology (GO)-terms, KEGG pathways and network analysis were performed for the proteome data. Drug-resistant cells showed increased drug tolerance, enhanced colony formation potential and an increased gap-healing tendency for the respective drug. Up-regulation of survival genes (BCL-2 and MCL-1) and down-regulation of apoptosis inducers were observed. Drug-resistance markers (MDR-1 and ABCG2 (BCRP)) along with ESR-1, CDK4, CDK6, and cyclin-D1 genes were up-regulated in resistant cells. A total of 237 and 239 proteins were found to be differentially expressed in the Ab and Pb-resistant cells, respectively. Down-regulated proteins induce apoptosis signalling and nucleotide metabolisms and restrict EGFR signalling; however, up-regulated proteins induce Erk, wnt-β-catenin, VEGFR-PI3K-AKT, glucose transportation, and hypoxia signalling pathways and regulate hydrogen peroxide signalling pathways. The panel of identified proteins associated with these pathways might have characteristics of molecular signature and new drug targets for overcoming drug resistance in breast cancer.

HMGA2 regulation by miRNAs in cancer: affecting cancer hallmarks and therapy response

High mobility group A 2 (HMGA2) is a protein that modulates the structure of chromatin in the nucleus. Importantly, aberrant expression of HMGA2 occurs during carcinogenesis, and this protein is an upstream mediator of cancer hallmarks including evasion of apoptosis, proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and therapy resistance. HMGA2 targets critical signaling pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin and mTOR in cancer cells. Therefore, suppression of HMGA2 function notably decreases cancer progression and improves outcome in patients. As HMGA2 is mainly oncogenic, targeting expression by non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) is crucial to take into consideration since it affects HMGA2 function. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) belong to ncRNAs and are master regulators of vital cell processes, which affect all aspects of cancer hallmarks. Long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), other members of ncRNAs, are upstream mediators of miRNAs. The current review intends to discuss the importance of the miRNA/HMGA2 axis in modulation of various types of cancer, and mentions lncRNAs and circRNAs, which regulate this axis as upstream mediators. Finally, we discuss the effect of miRNAs and HMGA2 interactions on the response of cancer cells to therapy. Regarding the critical role of HMGA2 in regulation of critical signaling pathways in cancer cells, and considering the confirmed interaction between HMGA2 and one of the master regulators of cancer, miRNAs, targeting miRNA/HMGA2 axis in cancer therapy is promising and this could be the subject of future clinical trial experiments.

Roles of microRNAs and exosomes in Helicobacter pylori associated gastric cancer

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a common pathogen that infects more than half of the world's population. Its infection can not only lead to a variety of gastrointestinal diseases, such as chronic gastritis and gastric cancer (GC) but also be associated with many extra-gastrointestinal diseases. Exosomes, as a new intercellular information transmission medium, can carry biological signal molecules such as microRNAs (miRNAs) to regulate a variety of cellular physiological activities and are involved in multiple cancer processes. In this article, we provide a systematic review on the role of exosomal miRNAs in H. pylori-associated GC.

Astragaloside IV, as a potential anticancer agent

Cancer is a global intractable disease, and its morbidity and mortality are increasing year by year in developing countries. Surgery and chemotherapy are often used to treat cancer, but they result in unsatisfactory outcomes, such as severe side effects and drug resistance. With the accelerated modernization of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), an increasing body of evidence has shown that several TCM components have significant anticancer activities. Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) is considered the main active ingredient of the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus. AS-IV exhibits various pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antifibrotic, and anticancer activities. AS-IV possesses a wide range of activities, such as the modulation of reactive oxygen species-scavenging enzyme activities, participation in cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis and autophagy, and suppression of cancer cell proliferation, invasiveness, and metastasis. These effects are involved in the inhibition of different malignant tumors, such as lung, liver, breast, and gastric cancers. This article reviews the bioavailability, anticancer activity, and mechanism of AS-IV and provides suggestions for further research of this TCM.

The multiple combination of Paclitaxel, Ramucirumab and Elacridar reverses the paclitaxel-mediated resistance in gastric cancer cell lines

Introduction

Paclitaxel (PTX) interferes with microtubule architecture by binding to β-tubulin, thereby blocking progression at the G2/M phase and inducing apoptosis. This study aimed to investigate molecular processes underlying PTX-mediated resistance in gastric cancer (GC) cells.

Methods

PTX-mediated resistance involves many processes, and in this work some of the factors involved in the resistance mechanism were identified by comparing two GC lines with PTX induced resistance to their sensitive counterparts.

Results

Thus, the key feature of PTX-resistant cells was the overexpression of pro-angiogenic factors such as VEGFA, VEGFC, and Ang2, known to support tumor cell growth. A second relevant change detected in PTX-resistant lines was the elevated level of TUBβIII, a tubulin isoform that opposes microtubule stabilization. A third identified factor contributing to PTX-resistance was P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a transporter responsible for chemotherapy efflux from the cells, highly expressed in PTX-resistant lines.

Discussion

These findings were in line with a greater sensitivity of resistant cells to treatment with both Ramucirumab and Elacridar. Ramucirumab significantly reduced the expression of angiogenic molecules and TUBβIII, while Elacridar restored the access of chemotherapy, recovering its anti-mitotic and pro-apoptotic effects. Finally, this study highlighted the role played by exosomes in spreading factors responsible for resistance in the tumor microenvironment.

Exosome-associated mitochondrial DNA from patients with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome stimulates human microglia to release IL-1β

Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) is a debilitating disease that presents with fatigue, sleep disturbances, malaise, and cognitive problems. The pathogenesis of ME/CFS is presently unknown, and serum levels of potential biomarkers have been inconsistent. Here, we show that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) associated with serum exosomes, is increased in ME/CFS patients only after exercise. Moreover, exosomes isolated from patients with ME/CFS stimulate significant release of IL-1β from cultured human microglia. These results provide evidence that activation of microglia by serum-derived exosomes may serve as a potential novel pathogenetic factor and target for treatment of ME/CFS.

Small Extracellular Vesicles and Their Involvement in Cancer Resistance: An Up-to-Date Review

In recent years, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in cancer. Thanks to advancements in molecular biology, it has been found that the fraction of EVs called exosomes or small EVs (sEVs) modulates the sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic agents by delivering molecularly active non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). An in-depth analysis shows that two main molecular mechanisms are involved in exosomal modified chemoresistance: (1) translational repression of anti-oncogenes by exosomal microRNAs (miRs) and (2) lack of translational repression of oncogenes by sponging of miRs through long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs). At the cellular level, these processes increase the proliferation and survival of cancer cells and improve their ability to metastasize and resist apoptosis. In addition, studies in animal models have shown enhancing tumor size under the influence of exosomal ncRNAs. Ultimately, exosomal ncRNAs are responsible for clinically significant chemotherapy failures in patients with different types of cancer. Preliminary data have also revealed that exosomal ncRNAs can overcome chemotherapeutic agent resistance, but the results are thoroughly fragmented. This review presents how exosomes modulate the response of cancer cells to chemotherapeutic agents. Understanding how exosomes interfere with chemoresistance may become a milestone in developing new therapeutic options, but more data are still required.

Non-coding RNA in cancer drug resistance: Underlying mechanisms and clinical applications

Cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed malignant diseases worldwide, posing a serious, long-term threat to patients’ health and life. Systemic chemotherapy remains the first-line therapeutic approach for recurrent or metastatic cancer patients after surgery, with the potential to effectively extend patient survival. However, the development of drug resistance seriously limits the clinical efficiency of chemotherapy and ultimately results in treatment failure and patient death. A large number of studies have shown that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), particularly microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs, are widely involved in the regulation of cancer drug resistance. Their dysregulation contributes to the development of cancer drug resistance by modulating the expression of specific target genes involved in cellular apoptosis, autophagy, drug efflux, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and cancer stem cells (CSCs). Moreover, some ncRNAs also possess great potential as efficient, specific biomarkers in diagnosis and prognosis as well as therapeutic targets in cancer patients. In this review, we summarize the recent findings on the emerging role and underlying mechanisms of ncRNAs involved in cancer drug resistance and focus on their clinical applications as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in cancer treatment. This information will be of great benefit to early diagnosis and prognostic assessments of cancer as well as the development of ncRNA-based therapeutic strategies for cancer patients.

Roles of exosomes as drug delivery systems in cancer immunotherapy: a mini-review

Exosomes can be released by a variety of cells and participate in intercellular communication in many physiological processes in the body. They can be used as carriers of cancer therapeutic drugs and have natural delivery capabilities. Some biologically active substances on exosomes, such as major histocompatibility complex (MHC), have been shown to be involved in exosome-mediated anticancer immune responses and have important regulatory effects on the immune system. Exosome-based drug delivery systems hold great promise in future cancer immunotherapy. However, there are still substantial challenges to be overcome in the clinical application of exosomes as drug carriers. This article reviews the biological characteristics of exosome drug delivery systems and their potential applications and challenges in cancer immunotherapy.

Mechanisms of cancer stem cells drug resistance and the pivotal role of HMGA2

Nowadays, the focus of researchers is on perceiving the heterogeneity observed in a tumor. The researchers studied the role of a specific subset of cancer cells with high resistance to traditional treatments, recurrence, and unregulated metastasis. This small population of tumor cells that have stem-cell-like specifications was named Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs). The unique features that distinguish this type of cancer cell are self-renewing, generating clones of the tumor, plasticity, recurrence, and resistance to therapies. There are various mechanisms that contribute to the drug resistance of CSCs, such as CSCs markers, Epithelial mesenchymal transition, hypoxia, other cells, inflammation, and signaling pathways. Recent investigations have revealed the primary role of HMGA2 in the development and invasion of cancer cells. Importantly, HMGA2 also plays a key role in resistance to treatment through their function in the drug resistance mechanisms of CSCs and challenge it. Therefore, a deep understanding of this issue can provide a clearer perspective for researchers in the face of this problem.

Clinical significance and correlation of miR-200c and P-gp expression in gastric cancer and the effects on multidrug resistance

BACKGROUND

Poor prognosis is common in gastric cancer patients due to multidrug resistance (MDR)-induced recurrence and metastasis. In the present study, we investigated the expression of microRNA (miR)-200c in gastric cancer tissues and cell lines and its relationship with the expression of the drug resistant gene ABCB1, which encodes P-glycoprotein (P-gp).

METHODS

The basic characteristics of 102 patients with gastric cancer were reviewed. Real time-polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, and Western blot were employed to detect the expression levels of miR-200c and P-gp in gastric carcinoma tissues and cell lines. The correlation of miR-200c messenger RNA (mRNA) level with clinicopathological characteristics and P-gp protein expression were analyzed. SGC7901/vincristine (VCR) cells were transfected with miR-200c mimics or a specific small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting the ABCB1 gene. The methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay and flow cytometry were used to determine the role of miR-200c and ABCB1 on the viability and apoptosis of gastric carcinoma cell lines.

RESULTS

The level of miR-200c in carcinoma tissues was significantly lower than that in adjacent tissues, and the expression level of P-gp in carcinoma tissues was obviously higher than that in adjacent tissues (P<0.01, P=0.029). The expression levels of miR-200c and P-gp were associated with the malignant characteristics of gastric cancer, and patients with high expression of miR-200c or negative expression of P-gp had a better prognosis (P=0.006, P=0.022). MiR-200c negatively regulated the ABCB1 gene in gastric cancer cell lines. MiR-200c overexpression and ABCB1 down-regulation increased the sensitivity of SGC7901/VCR cells to VCR and reversed MDR by promoting cell apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression level of miR-200c decreases in gastric carcinoma tissues and drug-resistant gastric cancer SGC7901/VCR cells. Overexpression of miR-200c may enhance the sensitivity of SGC7901/VCR cells to VCR by regulating the expression of P-gp.

miR-139-3p/Kinesin family member 18B axis suppresses malignant progression of gastric cancer

miR-139-3p exerts tumor-suppressing functions in various cancers. We analyzed and identified that miR-139-3p expression was notably low in gastric cancer (GC) via edgeR differential analysis based on The Cancer Genome Atlas database and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) assay. The binding relationship between Kinesin Family Member 18B (KIF18B) and miR-139-3p was predicted by bioinformatics databases, and verified through dual-luciferase assay. Western blot and qRT-PCR results also indicated that miR-139-3p restrained KIF18 expression at mRNA and protein levels. 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, wound healing, transwell, flow cytometry assays were introduced to evaluate cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and cell cycle, respectively, where the results indicated that upregulating miR-139-3p inhibited proliferative, migratory, and invasive abilities of GC cells, while caused cell-cycle arrest. Moreover, the results of rescue experiments illustrated that miR-139-3p hampered the progression of GC cells by targeting and suppressing KIF18B. To sum up, we concluded that miR-139-3p suppressed GC progression by targeting KIF18B.