Having less and wanting more: an investigation of socioeconomic status and reinforcement pathology

Prevalence of daily family meals among children and adolescents from 43 countries

Prevalence studies about family meals, including large and representative samples of children and adolescents on this topic, are scarce. Therefore, the aim of this study was twofold: first, to determine the prevalence of daily family meals in large and representative samples of school-going children and adolescents from 43 countries, and second, to identify the sex, age, socioeconomic status (SES), family structure, immigrant status and parental labour market status inequalities associated with this prevalence. Using data from the 2017/2018 wave of the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children study, a total of 179,991 participants from 43 countries were involved in this cross-sectional study. Family meals were assessed by the following question: 'How often do you and your family usually have meals together?'. Participants had five different response options: 'every day', 'most days', 'about once a week', 'less often', and 'never'. The meta package was utilized for conducting a meta-analysis of single proportions, specifically applying the metaprop function. The analysis involved pooling the data using a random-effects model and presenting the outcomes through a forest plot generated using the inverse variance method. Moreover, we applied generalized linear mixed models to explore the relationships between the studied sociodemographic factors as fixed effects, country as a random effect and the status of daily family meals as an outcome. Overall, the prevalence of daily family meals was 49.12% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 45.00-53.25). A greater probability of having daily family meals was identified for children aged 10-12 years (61.55%; 95% CI: 57.44%-65.49%), boys (61.55%, 95% CI: 57.44%-65.49%), participants with high SES (64.66%, 95% CI: 60.65%-68.48%), participants with both parents at home (65.05%, 95% CI: 61.16%-68.74%) and those with both unemployed parents (61.55%, 95% CI: 57.44%-65.49%). In the present study, which included large representative samples of school-going children and adolescents from 43 countries, more than half of the participants did not have daily family meals.

A psychobioecological model to understand the income-food insecurity-obesity relationship

Food insecurity, defined by unpredictable access to food that may not meet a person's nutritional needs, is associated with higher BMI (kg/m2) and obesity. People with food insecurity often have less access to food, miss meals and go hungry, which can lead to psychological and metabolic changes that favor energy conservation and weight gain. We describe a conceptual model that includes psychological (food reinforcement and delay discounting) and physiological (thermic effect of food and substrate oxidation) factors to understand how resource scarcity associated with food insecurity evolves into the food insecurity-obesity paradox. We present both animal and human translational research to describe how behavioral and metabolic adaptations to resource scarcity based on behavioral ecology theory may occur for people with food insecurity. We conclude with ideas for interventions to prevent or modify the behaviors and underlying physiology that characterize the income-food insecurity-obesity relationship.

Parents, but not their children, demonstrate greater delay discounting with resource scarcity

BACKGROUND

Individuals with obesity tend to discount the future (delay discounting), focusing on immediate gratification. Delay discounting is reliably related to indicators of economic scarcity (i.e., insufficient resources), including lower income and decreased educational attainment in adults. It is unclear whether the impact of these factors experienced by parents also influence child delay discounting between the ages of 8 and 12-years in families with obesity.

METHODS

The relationship between indices of family income and delay discounting was studied in 452 families with parents and 6-12-year-old children with obesity. Differences in the relationships between parent economic, educational and Medicaid status, and parent and child delay discounting were tested.

RESULTS

Results showed lower parent income (p = 0.019) and Medicaid status (p = 0.021) were differentially related to greater parent but not child delay discounting among systematic responders.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest differences in how indicators of scarcity influence delay discounting for parents and children, indicating that adults with scarce resources may be shaped to focus on immediate needs instead of long-term goals. It is possible that parents can reduce the impact of economic scarcity on their children during preadolescent years. These findings suggest a need for policy change to alleviate the burden of scarce conditions and intervention to modify delay discounting rate and to improve health-related choices and to address weight disparities.

Intersections between environmental reward availability, loss aversion, and delay discounting as potential risk factors for cigarette smoking and other substance use

Behavioral theory suggests that density of environmental rewarding activities and biases in decision making influence risk for substance use disorder (SUD). To better understand intersections of these potential risk factors, this study examined whether environmental reward predicted smoking status or other drug use and whether such associations were independent of two decision-making biases known to predict SUD risk, namely loss aversion and delay discounting. Individuals that reported current daily cigarette smoking (n = 186; >10 cigarettes/day) and never-smoking (n = 241; <100 cigarettes lifetime) were recruited with standard crowdsourcing methods. Participants answered questions on alcohol and other drug use. Environmental reward was assessed using the Reward Probability Index (RPI), and loss aversion (LA) and delay discounting (DD) using a gamble-acceptance task and monetary choice questionnaire, respectively. Associations of RPI, LA, and DD with cigarette smoking, alcohol use, other drug use, and combinations of co-use were examined with logistic regression controlling for sociodemographic variables (educational attainment, gender, age). Low RPI (odds ratio[OR] = 0.97, p = .006), low LA (OR = 1.22, p < .001), and high DD (OR = 1.12, p = .03), were each independently associated with increased risk for cigarette smoking, as well as other substance use, and use combinations. We saw no evidence that RPI was significantly influencing associations between LA and DD with smoking status or other substance use. Finally, RPI, but not LA or DD, was significantly associated with depressed mood and sleep disturbance. These results provide new evidence on associations of RPI with smoking status and other substance use while further documenting independent associations between LA and DD and those outcomes.

The Effect of Financial Scarcity on Reinforcer Pathology: A Dyadic Developmental Examination

This study investigated the effects of experimentally manipulated scarcity on the reinforcing value of food (RRVfood) and delay discounting (DD), which, together, create reinforcer pathology (RP) among parents and offspring. A stratified sample of 106 families (53 parent/child aged 7−10 dyads & 53 parent/adolescent aged 15−17 dyads) from high- and low-income households visited our laboratory for three appointments. Each appointment included an experimental manipulation of financial gains and losses and DD and RRV tasks. The results showed that, regardless of food insecurity or condition, children had greater RP (β = 1.63, p < 0.001) than adolescents and parents. DD was largely unaffected by acute scarcity in any group, but families with food insecurity had greater DD (β = −0.09, p = 0.002) than food-secure families. Food-insecure parents with children responded to financial losses with an increase in their RRVfood (β = −0.03, p = 0.011), while food-secure parents and food-insecure parents of adolescents did not significantly change their responding based on conditions. This study replicates findings that financial losses increase the RRVfood among adults with food insecurity and extends this literature by suggesting that this is strongest for parents of children.

The effect of acute and chronic scarcity on acute stress: A dyadic developmental examination

BACKGROUND

Food insecurity, obesity, and psychological stress are interrelated constructs which are thought to be connected through increased energy intake, but the underlying mechanisms for these relationships remain unclear. The current study used experimental methods to investigate how financial losses may influence acute stress in the context of food insecurity for both parents and offspring. This study also sought to examine the effect of acute stress related to financial losses on the reinforcing value of food (RRV_food) and delay discounting (DD).

METHODS

One hundred and six families stratified by both offspring age (53 children aged 7-10, 53 adolescents aged 15-17) and household financial resources, visited our laboratory for three separate appointments. Each appointment included the experimental manipulation of financial gains and losses, saliva samples for cortisol assay, continuous heart rate monitoring, self-rated tension, and computer-based DD and RRV_food tasks. Participants also completed surveys to report perceived life stress level and food insecurity status.

RESULTS

Among all participants, financial losses were related to decreased heart rates and increased self-rated tension. Among parents reporting food insecurity, acute financial losses resulted in an increase in cortisol levels. Changes in cortisol, heart rate, and tension were not related to RRV_food or DD.

CONCLUSION

Food insecure parents are sensitive to financial losses and respond with an increase in cortisol. However, we found no evidence for a relationship between cortisol and RRV_food or DD. This sensitivity to financial losses did not extend to children or adolescents.

Self-Reported Eating Speed Is Associated with Indicators of Obesity in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Eating speed (ES) as a dietary behaviour has become a widely discussed factor for weight management and obesity. This study analysed the relationship between ES and anthropometric indicators of obesity, including BMI and waist circumference (WC) in adults. A search conducted of PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct and Scopus found six longitudinal studies and fifteen cross-sectional studies published for further analysis. A quality assessment was performed with the MINORS checklist. Eight studies were included in the meta-analysis and almost all reviewed studies showed that ES was associated with BMI, and non-fast eaters had significantly lower BMI than fast eaters. Therefore, it was assumed that slowing down the ES may be an effective strategy for weight management and lowering obesity risk. There was also an association between WC and ES. Assessment of eating speed can be included in nutrition surveys to analyse obesity risk. More broadly, research is also needed to establish a validated and standardised methodology to determine eating speed. Further research needs to examine the links between eating speed, obesity, ethnicity, sex, food culture and chronic diseases.