Kinsenoside inhibits the inflammatory mediator release in a type-II collagen induced arthritis mouse model by regulating the T cells responses

Kinsenoside from Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl. suppressed oxidative stress to attenuate aging-related learning and memory impairment via ERK/Nrf2 pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Anoectochilusroxburghii (Wall.) Lindl. (AR), as an exceptionally valuable traditional Chinese medicine, has been widely used to treat hepatitis, cancer, diabetes, etc. But, the effects and the primary functioning element of AR on attenuating aging and aging-related learning and memory degradation has not yet been explored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed at exploring the protective property of aqueous extract of AR (AEAR) on alleviation of aging and aging-related learning and memory impairment in vivo, and further investigating the main active ingredient and mechanism of AEAR.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

D-galactose (D-gal) induced aging mice and HT22 cells exposed with L-Glutamic acid (Glu) were used as in vivo and in vitro model, separately. The effects of AEAR on aging and aging-related learning and memory degradation were explored by using morris water maze test, immunohistochemistry staining, biochemistry assay, etc. The effects and mechanism of AEAR and Kinsenoside (Kin) on antioxidation in vitro were investigated by cell viability assay, biochemistry assay, qRT-PCR, western blotting and molecular docking studies.

RESULTS

Treatment with AEAR (containing 69.52 ± 0.85% Kin, i.g.) for 63 days, alleviated low growth rate, abnormal brain, liver and thymus index, and decline in learning and memory capability of aging mice. Meanwhile, AEAR inhibited the decreased activities of SOD and GSH-PX, the decline in the ratio of GSH to GSSG, and the increase of MDA in both serum and brain, and also promoted the Nrf2 nuclear translocation in brain of aging mice induced by D-gal. The effects of AEAR on alleviating abnormal physiological characteristics, attenuating learning and memory impairment, and inhibiting oxidative stress in aging mice was similar to or even better than that of Vc. In HT22 cells exposed with Glu, Kin increased the cell viability, up-regulated the activities of SOD and GSH-PX, enhanced the ratio of GSH to GSSG, and down-regulated MDA, which was superior to AEAR. Kin up-regulated the ratio of p-ERK1/2 to ERK1/2, promoted the Nrf2 nuclear translocation and its downstream target genes, i.e. HO-1, NQO-1, GCLC and GCLM expression at the mRNA and protein levels, which were consistent with AEAR. Further, molecular docking results also confirmed that Kin had strong binding energy with ERK1 and ERK2.

CONCLUSION

The present study indicated that Kin could alleviate the oxidative stress in aging mice via activating the ERK/Nrf2 signaling pathway, in order to attenuate aging and aging-related learning and memory impairment, as the main active ingredient of AR.

Advances in the therapeutic application and pharmacological properties of kinsenoside against inflammation and oxidative stress-induced disorders

Extensive research has implicated inflammation and oxidative stress in the development of multiple diseases, such as diabetes, hepatitis, and arthritis. Kinsenoside (KD), a bioactive glycoside component extracted from the medicinal plant Anoectochilus roxburghii, has been shown to exhibit potent anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative abilities. In this review, we summarize multiple effects of KD, including hepatoprotection, pro-osteogenesis, anti-hyperglycemia, vascular protection, immune regulation, vision protection, and infection inhibition, which are partly responsible for suppressing inflammation signaling and oxidative stress. The protective action of KD against dysfunctional lipid metabolism is also associated with limiting inflammatory signals, due to the crosstalk between inflammation and lipid metabolism. Ferroptosis, a process involved in both inflammation and oxidative damage, is potentially regulated by KD. In addition, we discuss the physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetic profiles of KD. Advances in cultivation and artificial synthesis techniques are promising evidence that the shortage in raw materials required for KD production can be overcome. In addition, novel drug delivery systems can improve the in vivo rapid clearance and poor bioavailability of KD. In this integrated review, we aim to offer novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the therapeutic role of KD and lay solid foundations for the utilization of KD in clinical practice.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Oxidative Stress-Mediated Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is the most common contributor to low back pain (LBP). Recent studies have found that oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in IVDD. As a by‐product of aerobic respiration, ROS is mainly produced in the mitochondria by the electron transport chain and other mitochondrial located proteins. With the excessive accumulation of ROS, mitochondria are also the primary target of ROS attack in disc cells. A disrupted balance between intracellular ROS production and antioxidant capacity will lead to oxidative stress, which is the key contributor to cell apoptosis, cell senescence, excessive autophagy, and mitochondrial dysfunction. As the pivotal ingredient of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction manifests as imbalanced mitochondrial dynamics and dysregulated mitophagy. Mitochondria can alter their own dynamics through the process of fusion and fission, so that disabled mitochondria can be separated from the mitochondrial pool. Moreover, mitophagy participates by clearing these dysfunctional mitochondria. Abnormality in any of these processes either increases the production or decreases the clearance of ROS, leading to a vicious cycle that results in the death of intervertebral disc cells in large quantities, combined with degradation of the extracellular matrix and overproduction of matrix metalloproteinase. In this review, we explain the changes in mitochondrial morphology and function during oxidative stress‐mediated IVDD and highlight the important role of mitochondria in this process. Eventually, we summarize the IVDD therapeutic strategies targeting mitochondrial dysfunction based on current understanding of the role of oxidative stress in IVDD.

Structure of type II collagen from sturgeon cartilage and its effect on adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis in rats

The purpose of this paper was to extract and characterize type II collagen of sturgeon cartilage (SC-CII), and to explore the effects of taking SC-CII orally on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in rats. SC-CII showed a triple-helix structure (RPN = 0.12), with d1 of 11.82 Å and d2 of 4.08 Å, which was analyzed by FT-IR, CD, XRD, and MS. It was constructed of the repeating tripeptide unit Gly-X-Y, where X and Y are generally Pro or Hyp, proved by amino acid composition and peptide mass fingerprinting. Furthermore, the effects of SC-CII on RA were evaluated. Ankle thickness was significantly decreased in SC-CII groups, with changes in lymphocyte proliferation also observed. Compared with the model control group, there was an evident decrease in TNF-α, IL-1β, COX-2, MCP-1, and TLR-4 mRNA levels, but no remarkable differences in APF, MMP-3, and MyD88 mRNA levels in the SC-CII groups. In addition, TNF-α, IL-1β, RF, Anti-CII Ab were significantly reduced in the SC-CII groups, proved by ELISA. Therefore, SC-CII showed alleviating effects on RA through the TLR4/MyD88-NFκB pathway.

Systemic Administration of Neutral Electrolyzed Saline as a Novel Treatment for Rheumatoid Arthritis Reduces Mechanical and Inflammatory Damage to the Joints: Preclinical Evaluation in Mice

Rheumatoid arthritis is globally present in about 1% of the population. This autoinflammatory disease modifies the connective tissue, causing pain and inflammation of the joints. Over time, it causes the loss of joint cartilage and bone mass, decreasing the patient's quality of life. Treatment options now available either give symptomatic alleviation or alter the disease process. Nonetheless, adherence to chronic treatment is typically limited due to adverse effects. As a result, new therapy approaches, such as systemic administration of neutral electrolyzed saline to improve patients' quality of life, are being investigated. The study is a randomized prospective preclinical trial with a single-blind and a 4-arm parallel group using a collagen-induced mice model to generate rheumatoid arthritis. It was carried out on 36 male BALB/c mice, with the primary outcome measure being a scoring system for histopathologic assessment. When all groups are compared, there are significant differences. In addition, the animal model was validated by the healthy group. The animals treated with neutral electrolyzed saline had much less cartilage degradation, bone erosion, pannus development, and inflammation than the placebo-treated mice. Serum IL-6 levels were evaluated in parallel with disease severity expressed as synovitis grading of the affected joints. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (Rs) = 0.399 (P=0.016) between serum IL-6 levels and the synovitis grading suggests a direct correlation between IL-6 production and disease severity. An additional trial of 20 male BALB/c mice (10 treated with placebo and 10 with neutral electrolyzed saline for 30 days) showed no clinical nor histopathological evidence of adverse effects. According to histopathological and blood test results, we conclude that neutral electrolyzed saline minimizes mechanical and inflammatory damage to the joint and may be helpful as an alternative to rheumatoid arthritis therapy.

The Activation of AMPK/NRF2 Pathway in Lung Epithelial Cells Is Involved in the Protective Effects of Kinsenoside on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Lung Injury

The disorder of mitochondrial dynamic equilibrium of lung epithelial cell is one of the critical causes of acute lung injury (ALI). Kinsenoside (Kin) serves as an active small-molecule component derived from traditional medicinal herb displaying multiple pharmacological actions in cancers, hyperglycemia, and liver disease. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of Kin on lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced ALI and further explore possible molecular mechanisms. Kin was administered orally (100 mg/kg/day) for 7 consecutive days before LPS instillation (5 mg/kg). After 12 hours, pathological injury, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress were detected. The results demonstrated that Kin significantly alleviated lung pathological injury and decreased the infiltration of inflammatory cells and the release of inflammatory mediators in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), apart from inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation. Meanwhile, Kin also promoted mitochondrial fusion and restrained mitochondrial fission in mice with ALI. In terms of mechanism, Kin pretreatment increased the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and the protein level of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2). In Ampk-α knockout mice challenged with LPS, Kin lost its pulmonary protective effects, accompanied by lower NRF2 level. In vitro experiments further unveiled that either AMPK inhibition by Compound C or NRF2 knockdown by siRNA abolished the protective roles of Kin in LPS-treated A549 lung epithelial cells. And NRF2 activator TAT-14 could reverse the effects of Ampk-α deficiency. In conclusion, Kin possesses the ability to prevent LPS-induced ALI by modulating mitochondrial dynamic equilibrium in lung epithelial cell in an AMPK/NRF2-dependent manner.

Tripterine and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) - loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles for synergistic anti-arthritic therapy against inflammatory arthritis

Arthritis of joints remains a hard-to-treat disease due to the low drug exposure to the articular cavity. Present study was intended to develop a Tripterine (TRI) and all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA)-loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (ATLP) for enhanced antiarthritic efficacy in arthritis conditions. We have showed that two drugs could be loaded with high loading capacity and control the release kinetics in a pH-responsive manner. The ATLP showed strong inhibitory effects on the expressions of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells at the in vitro conditions. Compared to individual drugs (TRI and ATRA), ATLP significantly reduced the paw thickness exhibiting potent inhibition of inflammation. Consistently, ATLP resulted in lowest clinical score compared to that of individual drug indicating the remarkable improvement in the recession of inflammation. We have clearly demonstrated that the nanoparticulate based co-delivery of drugs could abolish the adverse effects of free drug as indicated by the body weight changes. Importantly, ATLP resulted in significant reduction of mRNA of TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-ϒ and IL-17 compared to either free drugs or CIA mice. Overall, ATLP represent a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of arthritis conditions.

Kinsenoside Alleviates 17α-Ethinylestradiol-Induced Cholestatic Liver Injury in Rats by Inhibiting Inflammatory Responses and Regulating FXR-Mediated Bile Acid Homeostasis

Cholestasis is an important predisposing factor of liver diseases, such as hepatocyte necrosis, liver fibrosis and primary biliary cirrhosis. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of Kinsenoside (KD), a natural active ingredient of Anoectochilus roxburghii, on estrogen-induced cholestatic liver injury in Sprague-Dawley rats and the underlying mechanism. The rats were randomly divided into six groups: control group, model group, low-dose KD group (50 mg/kg body weight, KD-L), medium-dose KD group (100 mg/kg body weight, KD-M), high-dose KD group (200 mg/kg body weight, KD-H) and ursodeoxycholic acid group (40 mg/kg body weight, UDCA). 17α-Ethinylestradiol (EE) was used to establish an experimental animal model of estrogen-induced cholestasis (EIC). The results demonstrated that KD alleviated liver pathologic damage, serum biochemical status and inhibited hepatocellular microstructure disorder and bile duct hyperplasia in EE-induced cholestatic rats. Mechanically, KD alleviated EE-induced cholestatic liver injury by inhibiting inflammatory responses and regulating bile acid homeostasis. Concretely, KD reduced the expression of IL-1β and IL-6 by inhibiting NF-κB p65 to suppress EE-mediated inflammation in rat liver. KD enhanced the expression of FXR and inhibited EE-mediated reduction of FXR in vitro and in vivo. It was the potential mechanism that KD mitigates cholestasis by increasing efflux and inhibiting uptake of bile acids via FXR-mediated induction of bile salt export pump (BSEP) and reduction of Na⁺-dependent taurocholate cotransport peptide (NTCP) to maintain bile acid homeostasis. Moreover, KD repressed the bile acid synthesis through reducing the expression of synthetic enzyme (CYP7A1), thereby normalizing the expression of metabolic enzyme (SULT2A1) of bile acid. In conclusion, our results revealed that KD may be an effective drug candidate for the treatment of cholestasis.

Detecting kinsenoside from Anoectochilus roxburghii by HPLC-ELSD with dual columns of NH2 and AQ-C18

INTRODUCTION

Kinsenoside is a characteristic component of Anoectochilus roxburghii and accounts for this herb's medicinal and edible values. No international certified standard method is available for kinsenoside analysis as well as extraction and preservation.

OBJECTIVE

To develop a more accurate analytical method of kinsenoside. The effects of extraction and drying methods of A. roxburghii on kinsenoside efficiency were investigated for the first time, as well as to examine the kinsenoside stability.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The amino (NH₂ ) and AQ-C₁₈ columns for detecting kinsenoside extract was systematically compared by high-performance liquid chromatography evaporative light-scattering detector (HPLC-ELSD) and HPLC-diode-array detector (DAD), respectively. Kinsenoside, its epimer goodyeroside A and the degradation product during preservation were identified through HPLC-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS).

RESULTS

An accurate method of kinsenoside detection by HPLC-ELSD with dual columns of NH₂ and AQ-C₁₈ was established. The ratio of C_{goodyeroside A} to C_kinsenoside (Y) was determined using the AQ-C₁₈ column method. The concentration detected by the NH₂ column was multiplied by 1/(1 + Y) as the corrected result. Using this novel method, the average deviations were reduced by 7.64%. Moreover, the efficiency of kinsenoside extraction with water was almost twice that of extraction with ethanol. Freeze drying also led to a higher extraction efficiency (38.47% increase) than hot-air drying did. Furthermore, the degradation of kinsenoside extract exceeded 70% when stored at 37 °C for 3 months.

CONCLUSION

This study provides a reliable experimental method and theoretical basis for the quality control of kinsenoside from A. roxburghii, as well as other glycosides.

Kinsenoside ameliorates intervertebral disc degeneration through the activation of AKT-ERK1/2-Nrf2 signaling pathway

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is recognized as the major contributor to low back pain, which results in disability worldwide and heavy burdens on society and economy. Here we present evidence that the lower level of Nrf2 is closely associated with higher grade of IDD. The apoptosis and senescence of nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) were exacerbated by Nrf2 knockdown, but suppressed by Nrf2 overexpression under oxidative stress. Based on findings that Kinsenoside could exert multiple pharmacological effects, we found that Kinsenoside rescued the NPC viability under oxidative stress and protected against apoptosis, senescence and mitochondrial dysfunction in a Nrf2-dependent way. Further experiments revealed that Kinsenoside activated a signaling pathway of AKT-ERK1/2-Nrf2 in NPCs. Moreover, in vivo study showed that Kinsenoside ameliorated IDD in a puncture-induced model. Together, the present work suggests that Nrf2 is involved in the pathogenesis of IDD and shows the protective effects as well as the underlying mechanism of Kinsenoside on Nrf2 activation in NPCs.

Herbal compounds for rheumatoid arthritis: Literatures review and cheminformatics prediction

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic disease characterized by autoimmunity, joint inflammation, and cartilage destruction, which affects 0.5-1% of the population. Many compounds from herbal medicines show the potentials to treat RA. On this basis, the compounds with good pharmacokinetic behaviors and drug-likeness properties will be further studied and developed. Therefore, the herbal compounds with anti-RA activities were reviewed in this paper, and the cheminformatics tools were used to predict their drug-likeness properties and pharmacokinetic parameters. A total of 90 herbal compounds were analyzed, which were reported to be effective on RA models through anti-inflammation, chondroprotection, immunoregulation, antiangiogenesis, and antioxidation. Most of the herbal compounds have good drug-likeness properties. Most of the compounds can be an alternative and valuable source for anti-RA drug discovery.

Kinsenoside attenuates osteoarthritis by repolarizing macrophages through inactivating NF-κB/MAPK signaling and protecting chondrocytes

The objective was to investigate the effect of kinsenoside (Kin) treatments on macrophage polarity and evaluate the resulting protection of chondrocytes to attenuate osteoarthritis (OA) progression. RAW264.7 macrophages were polarized to M1/M2 subtypes then administered with different concentrations of Kin. The polarization transitions were evaluated with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), confocal observation and flow cytometry analysis. The mechanism of Kin repolarizing M1 macrophages was evaluated by Western blot. Further, macrophage conditioned medium (CM) and IL-1β were administered to chondrocytes. Micro-CT scanning and histological observations were conducted in vivo on anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT) mice with or without Kin treatment. We found that Kin repolarized M1 macrophages to the M2 phenotype. Mechanistically, Kin inhibited the phosphorylation of IκBα, which further reduced the downstream phosphorylation of P65 in nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling. Moreover, Kin inhibited mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signaling molecules p-JNK, p-ERK and p-P38. Additionally, Kin attenuated macrophage CM and IL-1β-induced chondrocyte damage. In vivo, Kin reduced the infiltration of M1 macrophages, promoted M2 macrophages in the synovium, inhibited subchondral bone destruction and reduced articular cartilage damage induced by ACLT. All the results indicated that Kin is an effective therapeutic candidate for OA treatment.

Anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of (-)-Epicatechin-3-O-β-d-allopyranoside, a constituent of Davallia formosana

BACKGROUND

(-)-Epicatechin-3-O-β-d-allopyranoside (ECAP) is isolated from the popular Chinese herbal medicine Davallia formosana, which has been used to treat bone diseases including bone fracture, arthritis, and osteoporosis.

PURPOSE

To investigate the antiarthritic and the anti-inflammatory effect of ECAP on a mouse model of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and in vitro.

METHODS

Male DBA/1 J mice were immunized by administering an intradermal injection of 100 µg of type II collagen in Freund's complete adjuvant. The control groups (vehicle) and ECAP were administered orally at doses of 1 ml/kg (H₂O), 50 and 100 mg/ml/kg once a day from Day 22 to Day 42 after primary immunization. Paw swelling, arthritis severity score, and histological changes were examined. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure the levels of cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-10, IL-17, IL-4, and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), in splenocytes. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory activities of ECAP were investigated in vitro by measuring nitric oxide (NO) levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 macrophages.

RESULTS

In the CIA model, the oral administration of ECAP ameliorated paw edema and reduced the arthritis severity score and disease incidence. Histopathological examination demonstrated that ECAP treatment effectively protected the bone and cartilage of knee joints from erosion, lesion formation, and deformation compared with the vehicle treatment. ECAP also reduced IL-1β and MMP-9 expression in inflamed joints. Compared with the vehicle-treated mice with CIA, the reduced severity of the disease in ECAP-treated mice was associated with decreased levels of TNF-α and IL-17 and increased levels of IL-10 and IL-4 in the supernatants of splenocyte cultures. Flow cytometry analysis demonstrated that ECAP increased the population of CD4⁺CD25⁺ regulatory T cells, thereby inhibiting the B cell population. Anticollagen IgG1 and IgG2a levels decreased in the serum of ECAP-treated mice. ECAP suppressed LPS-induced NO production in RAW264.7 macrophages.

CONCLUSION

The administration of ECAP effectively suppressed inflammation and inflammatory pain and adjuvant-induced arthritis, indicating its therapeutic potential in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Therapeutic effects of polysaccharides from Anoectochilus roxburghii on type II collagen-induced arthritis in rats

Anoectochilus roxburghii, a famous Chinese herbal medicine, has been commonly used for the treatment of liver disease, diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis. Our study aimed to investigate the anti-rheumatoid arthritis effects of A. roxburghii polysaccharides (ARP), using the rat's model of type II collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). ARP was prepared by alcohol sedimentation and structurally characterized based on combined chemical, chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. High Performance Size Exclusion Chromatography-Multiangle Laser Light Scattering-Refrative Index (HPSEC-MALLS-RI) analysis revealed that ARP includes two peaks, and the weight-average molecular weight (Mw) of the principal one was estimated as 5.90 kDa with a relative content of 98.2%. Pharmacological results exhibited that ARP significantly decreased the arthritis index and ameliorated the inflammatory cell infiltration and the synovial tissue destruction in CIA rats. Additionally, ARP possessed significant NO production inhibitory effects and antioxidant activity. Further anti-inflammatory mechanism investigations indicated that ARP significantly inhibited the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway by suppressing the phosphorylation of IκB and p65, which subsequently down-regulated the mRNA expressions of IL-1β and IL-6 in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. These findings suggested that ARP has great potential in the development of functional foods and dietary supplements for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Kinsenoside: A Promising Bioactive Compound from Anoectochilus Species

Kinsenoside is a main active component isolated from plants of the genus Anoectochilus, and exhibits many biological activities and pharmacological effects, including hepatoprotective, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hyperliposis, anti-inflammatory, vascular protective and anti-osteoporosis effects and so on, which is contributing to its promising potency in disease treatments. This review aims to recapitulate the pharmacological functions of kinsenoside, as well as its source, extraction, identification, quantitative analysis, pharmacokinetics, synthesis and patent information. The data reported in this work can confirm the therapeutic potential of kinsenoside and provide useful information for further new drug development.

Gambogic acid suppresses inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis rats via PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway

Gamboge is the dried resin secreted by the Garcinia maingayi gambogic tree and is a substance that may be used to treat a variety of diseases, exhibits anti‑tumor and detoxification effects and prevents bleeding. The primary active constituent is gambogic acid. The present study aimed to investigate the anti‑inflammatory effects of gambogic acid in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) rats and to elucidate the mechanisms by which these effects occur. The swelling degree, the clinical arthritic scoring and pain threshold measurements were used to evaluate the effects of gambogic acid on RA. ELISA kits and western blot analysis were used to investigate inflammatory processes and the expression of RA‑associated proteins, respectively. The present results demonstrated that gambogic acid significantly inhibited the degree of right foot swelling, increased pain thresholds and reduced clinical arthritic scores of RA rats. Treatment with gambogic acid suppressed the activities of interleukin (IL)‑1β and IL‑6, promoted the protein expression of phosphorylated (p)‑Akt serine/threonine kinase (Akt), p‑mammalian target protein of rapamycin (mTOR) and inhibited hypoxia‑inducible factor‑1α and vascular endothelial growth factor expression in RA rats. The results of the present study therefore suggest that the anti‑inflammatory effects of gambogic acid in RA rats occur via regulation of the phosphoinositide 3‑kinase/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Herbal formula Xian-Fang-Huo-Ming-Yin regulates differentiation of lymphocytes and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in collagen-induced arthritis mice

Background

Xian-Fang-Huo-Ming-Yin (XFHM), a traditional herbal formula, has been used to treat sores and carbuncles for hundreds of years in Asia. Nowadays, its clinical effects in treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) have been validated. In this study, we want to study its possible molecular mechanisms of regulating the differentiation of lymphocytes and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice for RA treatment.

Methods

A high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/mass spectrometer (HPLC-ESI/MSⁿ) system was used to analyze the constituents of XFHM granules. An arthritics mouse model was induced by collagen and leflunomide (LEF) was used as a positive control medicine. Pathological changes at the metatarsophalangeal joint were studied through Safranin O and immunohistochemical staining. The differentiation of T, B and NK cells was examined by flow cytometry and pro-inflammatory cytokines were assayed using an Inflammation Antibody Array assay. The expression of key molecules of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) and Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathways in spleen were studied by western-blot analysis.

Results

In our study. 21 different dominant chemical constituents were identified in XFHM. Treatment with XFHM suppressed the pathological changes in arthrosis of CIA. Additionally, XFHM down-regulated the proliferation and differentiation of CD3⁺ T cells and CD3⁻CD19⁺ B cells significantly. However, XFHM had no significant effect on CD3⁻NK1.1⁺ NK cells. Further study showed that the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines had been suppressed by inhibiting the activation of NF-κB and JAK/STAT signaling.

Conclusions

XFHM can regulate and maintain the immunologic balance of lymphocytic immunity and inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, thus suppressing the pathological changes of RA. Therefore, XFHM may be used as an application of traditional medicine against RA in modern complementary and alternative therapeutics.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12906-016-1526-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of kinsenoside, a potential immunosuppressive drug for autoimmune hepatitis, on dendritic cells/CD8+ T cells communication in mice

The central purpose of this study was to investigate therapeutic effects of the botanical derivative, kinsenoside (KD), in experimental autoimmune hepatitis (AIH). Treatment with KD substantially reduced hepatic histopathological damage, induced by lymphocyte infiltration and proinflammatory cytokines, in concanavalin A-induced T-cell-mediated hepatitis, and in dendritic cells (DCs) loaded with hepatocellular carcinoma cells (DC/Hepa1-6) induced murine AIH. Interactions between immune cells after KD treatment in AIH were detected by anti-CD8 antibody blocking, CD8⁺ T cell sorting, and vaccinated mice with KD-pretreated DCs in a DC/Hepa1-6 model. These results showed that KD inhibited the elevated expressions of CD86 and major histocompatibility complex II, densities of chemokine receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 7, and extensive migration to lymph nodes, and increased the programmed death ligand 1 level of DCs, followed by suppressing CD8⁺ T cells, characterized as low differentiation and cytotoxicity, and eliciting cytokines balance. Furthermore, biochemical analysis, two-dimensional fingerprint screen and three-dimensional molecular docking results showed that KD bound to the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) kinase domain, which inhibited the metabolism-related phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K-AKT) pathway in DCs and DC-modulated CD8⁺ T cells to lower the mitochondrial membrane potential and glucose/lipid utilization ratio in both cells. KD reversed activation of the PI3K-AKT pathway by 740 Y-P (PI3K agonist), thereby impeding the translocation and dimerization of signal transducer and activators of transcription (STAT) 3 and synergistically blocking the inflammation-related Janus kinase (JAK) 2/STAT3 pathway in DCs and DC-modulated T cells.

CONCLUSION

KD treatment elicits immunosuppression against autoimmune liver injury by targeting VEGFR2, followed by diminishing the cross-talk of metabolism-related PI3K-AKT and inflammation-related JAK2-STAT3 pathways, and thereby disrupts DC-induced cross-priming of CD8⁺ T cell responses. (Hepatology 2016;64:2135-2150).

A Truncated IL-17RC Peptide Ameliorates Synovitis and Bone Destruction of Arthritic Mice

Peptide-based therapy, such as modified peptides, has attracted increased attention. IL-17 is a promising therapeutic target for autoimmune diseases, and levels of circulating bioactive IL-17 are associated with rheumatoid arthritis severity. In this study, a modified truncated IL-17RC is generated to ameliorate inflammation and bone destruction in arthritis. The truncated IL-17RC binds to both IL-17A and IL-17F with higher binding capacity compared to nonmodified IL-17RC. In addition, the truncated IL-17RC reduces the secretion of inflammatory and osteoclastogenic factors induced by IL-17A/F in vitro. Moreover, the administration of truncated IL-17RC dramatically improves symptoms of inflammation and inhibited bone destruction in collagen-induced arthritis mice. Collectively, these data demonstrate that modified truncated IL-17RC peptide may be a more effective treatment strategy in the simultaneous inhibition of both IL-17A and IL-17F signaling, whereas the existing agents neutralize IL-17A or IL-17F alone. These suggest that the truncated IL-17RC may be a potential candidate in the treatment of inflammatory associated bone diseases.

Kinsenoside screening with a microfluidic chip attenuates gouty arthritis through inactivating NF-κB signaling in macrophages and protecting endothelial cells

Gouty arthritis is a rheumatic disease that is characterized by the deposition of monosodium urate (MSU) in synovial joints cause by the increased serum hyperuricemia. This study used a three-dimensional (3D) flowing microfluidic chip to screen the effective candidate against MSU-stimulated human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) damage, and found kinsenoside (Kin) to be the leading active component of Anoectochilus roxburghi, one of the Chinese medicinal plant widely used in the treatment of gouty arthritis clinically. Cell viability and apoptosis of HUVECs were evaluated, indicating that direct Kin stimulation and conditioned medium (CM) from Kin-treated macrophages both negatively modulated with MSU crystals. Additionally, Kin was capable of attenuating MSU-induced activation of nuclear factor-κB/mitogen-activated protein kinase (NF-κB/MAPK) signaling, targeting IκB kinase-α (IKKα) and IKKβ kinases of macrophages and influencing the expressions of NF-κB downstream cytokines and subsequent HUVEC bioactivity. Inflammasome NLR pyrin domain-containing 3 (NALP3) and toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) were also inhibited after Kin treatment. Also, Kin downregulated CD14-mediated MSU crystals uptake in macrophages. In vivo study with MSU-injected ankle joints further revealed the significant suppression of inflammatory infiltration and endothelia impairment coupled with alleviation of ankle swelling and nociceptive response via Kin treatments. Taken together, these data implicated that Kin was the most effective candidate from Anoectochilus roxburghi to treat gouty arthritis clinically.

Xianfanghuomingyin, a Chinese Compound Medicine, Modulates the Proliferation and Differentiation of T Lymphocyte in a Collagen-Induced Arthritis Mouse Model

In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), xianfanghuomingyin (XFHM) is used to treat autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Here, we studied the mechanisms underlying its treatment effects, especially its anti-inflammatory effects in a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mouse model. We found that cartilage destruction and pannus formation were alleviated by treatment with XFHM. The abnormal differentiation of Th1 and Th17 cells was downregulated significantly by XFHM, and Th2 and Treg cells were upregulated. Moreover, the expression levels of specific cytokines and transcription factors related to Th1 cells (interferon γ [IFNγ], T-bet) and Th17 cells (interleukin- [IL-] 17) and the nuclear receptor retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor-gamma (RORγ) were downregulated. Serum IL-4 and GATA-3, which contribute to Th2 cells differentiation, increased significantly after XFHM administration. These results indicate that XFHM can restore the balance of T lymphocytes and reestablish the immunological tolerance to inhibit autoinflammatory disorder of RA. Taken together, XFHM can be used as a complementary or alternative traditional medicine to treat RA.